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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Email: moc.kooltuo@888misaqnahseez .

Huaming Song, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@gnimauh .

Muntasir Murshed, Email: [email protected] .

Haider Mahmood, Email: moc.liamtoh@doomhamrediah .

Ijaz Younis, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@sinuoyzaji .

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• Published: 18 October 2021

Research for climate adaptation

• Bruce Currie-Alder   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3224-4136 1 ,
• Cynthia Rosenzweig 2 ,
• Minpeng Chen 3 ,
• Johanna Nalau 4 ,
• Anand Patwardhan 5 &
• Ying Wang 6  

Communications Earth & Environment volume  2 , Article number:  220 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change adaptation
• Climate-change impacts
• Developing world
• Environmental studies

An Author Correction to this article was published on 28 October 2021

This article has been updated

Adaptation to climate change must be ramped up urgently. We propose three avenues to transform ambition to action: improve tracking of actions and progress, upscale investment especially in critical areas, and accelerate learning through practice.

Ongoing climate impacts are outpacing global mitigation efforts. The reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) show that extreme events are increasing in frequency, intensity, and duration throughout the world. We have entered a climate beyond the range experienced in human history and we must learn to live in that emerging reality. As a result, adaptation needs to ‘increase ambition’ in the terminology of the upcoming 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Glasgow.

Adaptation is the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects. Regardless of how quickly societies decarbonize, global temperatures are already more than 1 °C above the 1850-to-1900 baseline and will continue to rise through mid-century and very likely beyond. 2021 is a year of record-breaking extremes from massive heatwaves and wildfires in the United States and Canada, to deadly floods in China and Germany. In the coming decades, climate change will go on to affect the lives, health, and livelihoods of billions of people. Along with the need to accelerate mitigation, an equally important goal of COP26 is to protect people and nature by increasing ambition for adaptation. We must seize the opportunity for research to enhance its usefulness and usability in order to rapidly upscale adaptation action, now needed more than ever.

Here we outline opportunities for research to accelerate adaptation, based on consultations and interviews with representatives of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the secretariats of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), United Nations University (UNU), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the Green Climate Fund (GCF), that is, the organizations that convene the World Adaptation Science Programme (WASP) 1 .

We identify three promising opportunities for progress. First, the Paris Agreement mechanisms to raise ambition, such as the global stocktake, requires research to establish what adaptation is being undertaken, whether it is effective, and if it is adequate in the face of a rapidly changing climate. Secondly, we need to ensure the resilience of—and resilience through—multilateral, domestic, and private investment. This will require research to make risk visible in decisions, to identify scalable and transferable practices, and to look ahead to how such investments perform into the future. Thirdly, research must accompany adaptation actions by communities and professionals, through creative and interactive co-production to enable learning by doing.

Informing the global stocktake

The global stocktake is mandated under Article 14 of the Paris Agreement with the purpose of assessing collective progress on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and the means of implementation, in the light of equity and the best available science. A global goal on adaptation is described under Article 7 as enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience, and reducing vulnerability to climate change. The first stocktake is expected in 2023 and will reoccur every 5 years.

One particular challenge for measuring actions and progress is the wide diversity of climate and socioeconomic conditions as well as of adaptation strategies undertaken by countries and communities around the globe. The knowledge base that underpins the global stocktake needs to embrace the heterogeneity that exists at the national level, and at the same time synthesize information so that global progress can be assessed. Connecting the global goal on adaptation with the myriad of practical actions on the ground, and tracking them through time, is no simple task.

We need practical, and transparent ways of assessing adaptation, underpinned by clear definitions and consistent terminology. At one level, we heard an aspiration for metrics and indicators to monitor and assess progress towards the global goal on adaptation, in a manner that enables comparison across locations and over time. Yet such efforts also raise conceptual issues regarding what counts as adaptation, what constitutes effectiveness, how to respect the diversity of local contexts, and how do they differ from climate-resilient development 2 , 3 , 4 .

Adaptation scholarship is growing in volume and sophistication, the sheer number of articles grew more than five-fold over the most recent decade. Techniques such as systematic literature reviews and machine learning promise to offer new perspective on the state of knowledge and breadth of experience 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . Such efforts also reveal places where evidence is less readily available, whether due to lack of research or that experience is shared in local languages. This provides a rich opportunity to place increasing focus on locations where evidence is weaker, assessing and synthesising experience-based knowledge from grey literature and making practitioner experience more visible at the global scale.

Guiding climate finance

The Adaptation Gap Report estimates that the annual costs of adaptation in developing countries could range from US$140 billion to US$300 billion annually by 2030 and rise from US$280 billion to US$500 billion by 2050 9 . Addressing these costs will require a drastic increase in the flows of public and private finance. Research needs to make the business case for funding adaptation, demonstrate the returns on investment, and ensuring its delivery where it is most needed. Unlocking finance depends on prioritizing among diverse options to invest in adaptation, assessing the synergies and trade-offs between climate action and development objectives.

Actors differ with respect to what counts as useful information and in what form. Some agencies have in-house units that scan and distill the academic literature, but others require more tailored advice on project proposals. Multilateral, national, and private sources of finance all have distinct knowledge needs, risk appetites, and ways of using evidence. For example, three-quarters of global climate finance is deployed in the country in which it is sourced 10 . In the near-term, research can work with climate finance to strengthen the evidence base and appetite for adaptation-based investment. Even the relatively large Green Climate Fund still relies heavily on grant finance for adaptation and has only two approved projects that leverage private sector funding 11 .

We note some frustration regarding the burden of proof placed upon prospective adaptation investments, the requirement to provide detailed climate scenarios on specific impacts, vulnerabilities, and risks in order to receive funding. Adaptation planning and project proposals are based on understanding the specific climate hazards, the livelihoods and assets at risk, and how investment will address those hazards and create value. Scenarios can also examine how a project might fare under a range of potential climate futures, thus anticipating limits to adaptation or avoiding maladaptation. While logical enough in principle, preparing such a climate justification can become burdensome if information must be continuously redone. Streamlined approaches are needed that are founded on climate science but that can be updated as the climate system and its impacts evolve.

Our discussions also identified instances where proposals were not funded due to a lack of historical climate data. Data collection is essential to strengthen the case for adaptation, in tandem with research that collates, curates, and archives the data so that both short-term and long-term learning can ensue.

Guiding climate finance requires rigorous science as well as sending the right signals to the market and removing barriers to investment. Ultimately research has a role in ensuring all financial flows are compliant with the Paris Agreement are supported by robust evidence, not merely those flows dedicated to assisting developing countries. The research community can help local people, policymakers, farmers, and urban planners make informed decisions by co-developing climate risk information, vulnerability assessments, and adaptation pathways.

Learning through practice

Rapid climate change is now upon us. This requires ongoing engagement among research, policy and practice. Policy and action cannot wait for the slow cycle of research-to-publication-to-recommendation. This decisive decade demands embedded approaches to research, that accompany the pursuit of massively scaled-up climate action. A renewed paradigm of solution- and action-oriented research is emerging. COP26 will see the launch of a new Adaptation Research Alliance to catalyze increased investment in action-oriented research driven by end-user needs.

Research must be integrated into practice: from problem definition to solution implementation, from program design to evaluation. There are, however, multiple barriers—social, economic, political, and institutional—to embracing action research within adaptation. We need to speak to the distinct styles of communication and the incentives that motivate research and policy communities. Research is often painstakingly careful and cautious, whereas policy and practice need timely advice and are deeply grounded in political and practical considerations.

Our interviews tapped into tremendous enthusiasm for adaptation research that is embedded in action. There is an openness for research to accompany implementation of adaptation plans, to catalyze learning from the results of practice, to rapidly scale up what works and let go of what is not effective. Specific expectations raised include the potential for research to facilitate cost-effective action, to provide practical guidance and toolboxes that can be easily accessed and used, and to go further to demonstrate outcomes in practice. Researchers need to understand the decisions practitioners are facing, the information that they need, and contexts in which they operate. This does not mean making research subservient to the pursuit of climate action, but rather to bring its critical eye to refining and enhancing that practice.

Three ways to facilitate action

We have highlighted opportunities for research to inform the global stocktake, guide climate finance, and learn through practice. These three opportunities are all part of the overall shift in adaptation research to move beyond identifying climate risks and vulnerability towards providing a full suite of the knowledge required to implement solutions and improve outcomes in the light of equity and the best available science.

Increasing ambition for adaptation to the climate crisis requires collaboration and change in both the world of science and the world of policy and practice. Policymakers and practitioners need to engage more with researchers, just as researchers need to engage more with policymakers and practitioners. This deeper integration between research and society is beginning to emerge, as scientists are striving much harder to make their findings usable and useful, and policymakers and practitioners are engaging much more directly with the research community. These are the efforts that will elevate adaptation ambition and action across the globe.

Change history

28 october 2021.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00302-8

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Bruce Currie-Alder

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Cynthia Rosenzweig

Renmin University, Beijing, China

Minpeng Chen

Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Johanna Nalau

University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Anand Patwardhan

United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

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B.C. and C.R. conducted the interviews and wrote the paper. All authors (B.C, C.R, M.P.C, J.N., A.P. and Y.W.) contributed to data interpretation, and provided inputs and edits throughout the process.

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Currie-Alder, B., Rosenzweig, C., Chen, M. et al. Research for climate adaptation. Commun Earth Environ 2 , 220 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00294-5

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Highlights of climate change impacts in the united states: the third national climate assessment (high resolution -pdf ebook).

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Climate Change through the Lens of Macroeconomic Modeling

There is a rapidly advancing literature on the macroeconomics of climate change. This review focuses on developments in the construction and solution of structural integrated assessment models (IAMs), highlighting the marriage of state-of-the-art natural science with general equilibrium theory. We discuss challenges in solving dynamic stochastic IAMs with sharp nonlinearities, multiple regions, and multiple sources of risk. Key innovations in deep learning and other machine learning approaches overcome many computational challenges and enhance the accuracy and relevance of policy findings. We conclude with an overview of recent applications of IAMs and key policy insights.

We thank Lint Barrage, Ghassane Benmir, Simon Dietz, Daniela Domeisen, Doris Folini, Stephie Fried, Aleksandra Friedl, Felix Kubler, Thomas Lontzek, Rick Van der Ploeg, Karl Schmedders, Christian Traeger, Frank Venmans, and Gauthier Vermandel for their valuable discussions and comments. This work was generously supported by grants from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), under project IDs “Can economic policy mitigate climate-change?,” and “New methods for asset pricing with frictions.” Simon Scheidegger gratefully acknowledges support from the Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices

Pdf booklet.

What is climate? Climate is commonly thought of as the expected weather conditions at a given location over time. People know when they go to New York City in winter, they should take a heavy coat. When they visit the Pacific Northwest, they should take an umbrella. Climate can be measured as many geographic scales - for example, cities, countries, or the entire globe - by such statistics as average temperatures, average number of rainy days, and the frequency of droughts. Climate change refers to changes in these statistics over years, decades, or even centuries.

Enormous progress has been made in increasing our understanding of climate change and its causes, and a clearer picture of current and future impacts is emerging. Research is also shedding light on actions that might be taken to limit the magnitude of climate change and adapt to its impacts.

Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices is intended to help people understand what is known about climate change. First, it lays out the evidence that human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, are responsible for much of the warming and related changes being observed around the world. Second, it summarizes projections of future climate changes and impacts expected in this century and beyond. Finally, the booklet examines how science can help inform choice about managing and reducing the risks posed by climate change. The information is based on a number of National Research Council reports, each of which represents the consensus of experts who have reviewed hundreds of studies describing many years of accumulating evidence.

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• Environment and Environmental Studies — Climate Change

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National Research Council. 2012. Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices: PDF Booklet . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/14673. Import this citation to: Bibtex EndNote Reference Manager

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• Buy Print Booklets Read Description: You can purchase Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices as a set of three booklets.
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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Your environment. your health., area 6: climate change impacts on human health.

As the reality of a changing climate unfolds across the globe in record-breaking heat, extreme storms and wildfires, droughts, floods, and the spread of vector-borne diseases, the need to understand the effects of these changes on human health is increasingly urgent. NIEHS brings to this challenge decades of research on the impacts of factors in the environment on human health. Such research is being leveraged to uncover the myriad ways in which climate change is fundamentally altering the systems humans rely on for air, water, food, shelter, and other essentials and the resulting outcomes for health and life. NIEHS has continued to expand its efforts in this area through leadership of the NIH Climate Change and Health Initiative and the NIH Disaster Research Response Program, as well as new engagements in research, translation, capacity, and training efforts across federal and global spheres. Topics include impacts of heat on health, oceans and human health, climate-related disasters, children’s health and climate change, and many others. Such research will utilize new approaches for using and integrating climate and health data to inform the identification of trends, prediction of risks, and adoption of actions to prevent and respond to negative health outcomes. This area of emphasis recognizes the disparate health impacts of climate change on diverse and under-resourced communities, and prioritizes efforts to understand these impacts and empower communities to adapt and build resilience against climate change threats.

Translational Goal

Catalyze research and translation of climate change effects on human health to reduce related health threats and impacts, especially among those most at-risk, and build health resilience to climate change impacts among individuals, communities, and nations around the world.

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• Provide leadership, guidance, technical assistance, coordination, and other resources to spur environmental health research and support the NIH Climate Change and Health Initiative.
• Conduct and support collaborative research with other NIH institutes, centers, and offices that use a climate changeframework to fill gaps in our understanding of human health and the causes of diseases and health conditions.
• Build partnerships that facilitate the translation of research across many sectors to provide the evidence base for health-protective policy and decision-making on climate change and health.
• Develop and sustain research, communication, resources, decision support tools, and knowledge bases to support global action on climate change and health, disaster research response, and related areas.

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NIEHS prioritizes scientific stewardship and operational principles that align with the institute’s commitment to advancing human health and understanding the environment’s impacts on human health.

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Historical and projected future land change and ecosystem carbon stocks for California

This dataset consists of annual raster maps of ecosystem carbon stocks, land use and land cover classes, and transition probabilities for the State of California during historical (1985-2020) and projected future (2021-2100) time periods. Data are simulation model output from the The Land Use and Carbon Simulator (LUCAS; Sleeter et al. 2022) run under different climate and land management scenarios. LUCAS model simulations were conducted on an annual timestep at 1-km spatial resolution with 40 Monte Carlo realizations per simulation. For the projected future time period, the model was run under all combinations of four climate scenarios, two urbanization scenarios, and two vegetation management scenarios. The climate scenarios were based on downscaled output from four CMIP6 Earth System Models (CESM, CNRM, EARTH3, and FGOALS) all run under Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 3 assuming additional radiative forcing of 7 W/m2 by the year 2100 (SSP370; see Tebaldi et al. 2021). Climate data were downscaled using the localized constructed analogs (LOCA) statistical method and are freely available to the public from the Analytics Engine Data Catalog (cal-adapt.org). The two urbanization scenarios sampled from historical rates of urban development on an annual basis, with one scenario restricting all new urban development to Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) areas while the other urbanization scenario excluded new urban development from WUI areas. The two land management scenarios consisted of a "business as usual" (Low) scenario based on historic rates of tree thinning and prescribed burning, while the second land management scenario (High) implemented forest management treatments to reduce wildfire hazard potential that match area targets from the 2021 California Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan (Wildfire Task Force 2021). Historical land change was based on trends in the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and historical climate was based on annual output data from the Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM). 

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Benjamin sleeter, supervisory research geographer, paul c. selmants, research ecologist.

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Research Areas for Climate Litigation

Delta Merner , Carly Phillips , Kathy Mulvey

Published Sep 18, 2024

Legal action related to climate change is more relevant than ever before—and scientists have a critical role to play.

Like all cases, climate-focused litigation requires evidence. And courtroom-ready evidence requires the engagement of scientists capable of conducting and interpreting rigorous litigation-relevant research.

To advance that work, we interviewed 19 legal practitioners and scholars and identified eight research needs for climate litigation. Of these, we highlight three as research priorities: attribution science, climate change and health, and economic modeling. We also describe five other strategic research areas: legal and financial accountability, disinformation and greenwashing, policy and governance, environmental and social impacts, and emissions accounting and reductions.

This is an online version of the report. For the full text, please download the PDF .

Climate litigation continues to grow and evolve as climate action lags and as impacts become increasingly severe. Although climate-focused cases employ a variety of legal strategies, they all need evidence to support their arguments, which requires the engagement of scientists capable of conducting and interpreting rigorous litigation-relevant research. To advance that work, we interviewed 19 legal practitioners and scholars and identified eight research needs for climate litigation. Of these, we highlight three as research priorities: attribution science, climate change and health, and economic modeling, all critical for advancing climate litigation and reflective of the field's evolution and progress. We designate the remaining five as strategic research areas: legal and financial accountability, disinformation and greenwashing, policy and governance, environmental and social impacts, and emissions accounting and reductions. Research to inform losses and damages emerged as a cross-cutting theme, integrating these priorities and strategic areas to address comprehensive litigation needs. This work underscores the important role scientists play in climate litigation and provides a research agenda for those looking to engage.

Introduction

Climate litigation has evolved and expanded significantly over the past decade. The increasing severity and scope of climate impacts and the inadequacy of public and private sector responses have led to a surge in lawsuits seeking to hold governments and corporations accountable for their contributions to climate change. More than 1,800 cases have been filed worldwide since 2015 (Figure 1), with at least 230 cases filed in 2023 alone (Setzer and Higham 2024). Because climate litigation encompasses diverse legal areas, such as environmental law, human rights, and consumer protection (Setzer and Higham 2024), the cases rely on robust research from a range of disciplines, including climate science, history, and economics (Stuart-Smith et al. 2021). This point underscores the power of rigorous interdisciplinary research in producing the evidence needed to support legal arguments.

Still, reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provide an important starting point for many legal teams, as the publications represent the global consensus on all types of research around climate change, from physical science and impacts to adaptation and mitigation (Wentz et al. 2023). However, IPCC reports often lack the detail and geographic specificity required to meet evidentiary standards for many types of climate cases, which drives the need for scientists to engage and produce research that can support litigation. In addition, cases focused on loss and damage---a term that refers to the negative impacts of climate change that are not being avoided or cannot be avoided through mitigation and adaptation---are expected to increase, which will require further research to support these claims (Setzer and Higham 2024). Given the rapid pace of case development and the range of disciplines from which cases draw evidence (Stuart-Smith et al. 2021), developing a litigation-relevant research agenda is key to enabling scientists to meet the needs of the legal community.

Here, we aim to develop that research agenda by identifying strategic research areas and tracking trends around evidence used in climate litigation. We conducted interviews with legal scholars and practitioners following an adapted, semistructured, open-ended script (Merner, Franta, and Frumhoff 2022) and used thematic analysis to identify, organize, and interpret patterns in our data. Data were collected between March and July 2024 through interviews with 19 participants who were selected based on their expertise in climate litigation and their geographical location (Table 1). This sample size is not large enough, however, to analyze comprehensive global trends, as interviewees represent only a small fraction of the global legal landscape. The semistructured interview format allowed for in-depth exploration of the participants' views while maintaining a consistent structure across the interviews.

In analyzing the interviews, we identified eight key research areas that present unique opportunities for scientists to engage with legal teams and contribute to the evolving landscape of climate litigation. Due to their critical importance in the current climate litigation landscape, three emerged as priority research areas: attribution science, climate change and human health, and economic modeling. We designated the remaining five as strategic research areas that address broader, interdisciplinary issues critical to climate litigation. These areas are legal duties and financial flows, disinformation and greenwashing, fair share analysis and compliance challenges, environmental and social impacts, and emissions accounting and reductions. Research to inform losses and damages, referring to the adverse impacts of climate change that are beyond the limits of adaptation, emerged as a cross-cutting theme. This current study contributes to the growing body of climate litigation research by identifying current trends, highlighting research priorities, and providing a basis for future studies. Our findings aim to guide researchers, inform practitioners, and foster communication between the legal and scientific communities to support future research and practice in this evolving field.

Research Needs for Climate Litigation

From the responses of the interviewees, we identified eight key research areas and a cross-cutting theme. Based on our understanding of the broader climate litigation field and the results of our interviews, we identified three priority research areas that directly support the most critical needs of climate litigation and five strategic research areas for future work. The scientific community can better support climate litigation efforts by addressing these research areas and providing robust, interdisciplinary evidence that meets the evolving needs of the legal community. Research to address and inform all aspects of climate losses and damages also emerged as a critical theme for future work, having applications across the priority and strategic research areas. Current and future research in the key areas, specifically that considers and addresses losses and damages, will enhance climate litigation effectiveness and contribute to wider efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Priority Research Areas

1. Attribution Science for Causal Links

Attribution science plays a critical role in establishing the causal links among climate change, its impacts, and specific emissions, which is fundamental in climate litigation. Interviewees highlighted a need for more of this type of research and for its results to be effectively communicated to legal professionals and policymakers to advance climate litigation and meet the evidentiary standards of the legal community (e.g., the but-for standard). This dissemination of knowledge includes explaining both the strengths and limitations of this research, advising on its applicability to legal contexts, and providing resources and training for legal teams to utilize attribution science effectively in litigation, including their recognition of Global North bias in existing literature. In that context, interviewees identified the need for attribution science focused on diverse geographies as well as the need for new methods to suit regions that may lack historical climate data, particularly in the Global South.

Although attribution science has made significant strides, interviewees also identified a need for attribution science focused on more types of climate events and at different scales, from local to global. The complexity of the physical processes involved and granularity of available data determine the feasibility of an attribution study and the ability to model the many associated factors. For example, attribution studies are more advanced and straightforward in areas in which the physical processes are relatively direct, such as heat waves and precipitation. In cases involving more complex processes, however, such as tropical cyclones or impacts on human systems, attribution becomes more challenging. Relatedly, interviewees noted the need for additional source attribution research, which quantifies the contributions of specific emissions sources (e.g., corporate actors, nations, states, and specific sectors) to climate change and its impacts, and also for more impact attribution research, which determines how specific people or places have been harmed by climate-related events. The field has made important advances in impact attribution, but quantifying harm remains challenging. Still, doing so is crucial for litigation that requires proof of harm, especially in differentiating between physical hazards and their social impacts.

Further, interviewees called for additional research about the risks and barriers that an overreliance on attribution science could present to achieving justice for underserved communities and countries, particularly in the Global South. Specifically, those that are most affected by climate change may be unable to seek justice through the court system because they lack the resources required to scope, conduct, and publish attribution studies. Addressing this issue, interviewees raised the need for research to examine the generalizability of attribution science to ensure that these findings are accessible to historically underserved communities and countries and to explore how other types of evidence can instead meet evidentiary standards.

2. Climate Change and Human Health

The connection between climate change and human health is increasingly recognized in legal contexts, as evidenced by cases in Switzerland and Montana (Setzer and Higham 2024). Understanding the health impacts of climate change is crucial for creating compelling legal arguments and achieving successful litigation outcomes. Interviewees identified the need for more research centering groups that are most vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change, such as people with disabilities, people experiencing poverty, older adults, infants, and pregnant people. This includes studying the effects of poor air quality, extreme heat, and water scarcity, as well as multiple and cumulative climate-related stressors. Additionally, interviewees highlighted the need for attribution studies to establish clear links between climate change and health outcomes. This includes studies on how climate change exacerbates conditions like asthma, cardiovascular diseases, and heat-related illnesses. Interviewees emphasized that all such research should include diverse geographic regions and temporal scales, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of health impacts globally. This would require collaborating across disciplines to gather and analyze relevant health data.

3. Economic Research on Climate Costs

Understanding the economic costs of climate change and climate inaction at various scales is vital for many legal cases. Courts require solid economic research to capture the financial implications of climate impacts and to determine appropriate remedies. Interviewees identified the need to conduct assessments detailing the costs associated with climate change, including direct damages, adaptation expenses, and lost economic opportunities. Each of these areas of study requires distinct methods. These assessments should cover a range of sectors and scales, from local communities to global economies. Further, interviewees stressed the need for economic modeling to predict future climate costs under different scenarios. These models should account for variables such as mitigation efforts, adaptation strategies, and economic resilience. Interviewees noted the need for economic analyses tailored for specific legal cases (although challenging to provide) so that findings are relevant and applicable to the contexts of individual lawsuits. This includes quantifying the economic benefits of proactive climate action and the costs of inaction.

By addressing these priority research areas, scientists can better inform climate litigation efforts, providing robust, interdisciplinary evidence that meets the evolving needs of the legal community. This research will not only enhance the effectiveness of climate litigation but also contribute to broader efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Strategic Research Areas

Legal Duties and Financial Flows

Legal and financial accountability emerged as areas in need of further research, including a pressing need for granular emissions accounting and mitigation pathways to hold corporations and states accountable, as noted in the section Emissions Reductions and Accounting. This is particularly true for smaller corporations and highly polluting industries, such as fashion and cement, that are understudied relative to the Carbon Majors, a group of 90 of the world's largest fossil fuel and cement-producing entities (Heede 2014). Interviewees also identified a need for research that characterizes and quantifies the role of the financial industry in supporting fossil fuel projects and thus contributing to emissions production (i.e., advised or financed emissions).

Disinformation and Greenwashing

Interviewees pointed out the need for research to identify and counteract dis- and misinformation and deceptive practices employed by opposing experts. This includes detailed analysis aimed at exposing and correcting misleading calculations and information disseminated by industries, their surrogates, and other vested interests. In addition to countering greenwashing, interviewees wanted additional research about whether and how greenwashing affects consumer behavior. Further, the need for research on counterfactual temperature trajectories---hypothetical scenarios that estimate what global temperatures would have been without specific emissions or corporate actions---was raised multiple times, illustrating the impact of corporate deception campaigns.

Fair Share Analysis and Compliance Challenges

Interviewees emphasized the need for research on fair share analyses for both corporations and nation-states, calling for additional research to understand compliance with and the ambition of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This research is crucial, as litigation increasingly targets inadequate mitigation goals and compliance gaps at the nation-state level. Furthermore, although the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change framework offers limited guidance for countries, there are no standardized emissions metrics or pathways for corporations, complicating efforts to hold them accountable for their climate impacts. For this reason, interviewees highlighted the urgent need for standardized emissions tracking and fair share analyses for corporations. These analyses should consider historical emissions and address the complexities of emissions arising from intricate business relationships, such as joint ventures. Studies could also investigate the direct and indirect lobbying activities of corporations in the context of climate policies and legislation, the influence of industry on IPCC Working Group III (the group tasked with synthesizing research focused on the mitigation of climate change), and the exclusion of financial sectors from critical processes. More, interviewees highlighted a need for clarity on the risks and implications of overshoot scenarios in which global average temperatures temporarily exceed thresholds like 1.5°C and 2°C and are then reduced using negative emissions technologies, such as carbon dioxide removal.

Environmental and Social Impacts

Interviewees stressed the importance of performing comprehensive environmental impact assessments that encompass a broad array of impacts, including those on biodiversity and climate. They identified such assessments as critical for infrastructure, energy, and other extractive projects, like mining, particularly if research can address the cumulative impacts to both communities and ecosystems over the lifetime of an individual project. Several interviewees mentioned the value of additional research on the climate consequences of land use change, the global reverberation of deforestation and loss of ecosystem services, and the broad ecosystem impacts of increasingly extreme weather events. Interviewees also highlighted the need for research on the effects of climate change on human rights and on the climate impacts for smaller remote and isolated communities, where long-term data collection may not have occurred.

Emissions Accounting and Reductions

Improving the granularity and communication of mitigation pathways for governments and corporations emerged as another key area for future research. This includes improved methodologies for documenting and reducing Scope 3 emissions (i.e., indirect emissions, including emissions generated through the intended use of a company's products), research on methane budgets, and studies supporting clear carbon budget targets. Further, interviewees identified a need for credible pathways for emissions reductions from corporations to serve as a counterfactual to misleading or incomplete transition plans. Interviewees also had questions about the actual impact of renewable energy credits and their effectiveness in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Another key topic pinpointed for further research was carbon dioxide removal and its role in meeting temperature targets.

Additional Research Needs

Some research areas identified by interviewees fell outside these eight key areas, but are critical for advancing climate litigation. These include determining the time line of corporate and state knowledge about climate change, integrating Indigenous knowledge into formal structures that describe climate impacts and put forward opportunities for mitigation and adaptation, and reaching a better understanding of the evidentiary standards required for climate litigation. Also, interviewees suggested that research around the framing of climate targets---using temperature, atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, or other alternatives---would be valuable for informing litigation. Our study provides important global perspectives from a small subset of legal scholars. As climate litigation continues to grow, so will the need for comprehensive studies with larger sample sizes that can capture a wider array of perspectives.

Cross-Cutting Theme: Losses and Damages

Research to better understand climate-driven losses and damages emerged as a cross-cutting priority, emphasizing this theme as a burgeoning area for future climate-related cases. This could include comprehensive research to calculate the cost of these losses and damages, addressing both economic and noneconomic losses, such as those associated with intangible cultural heritage, social structures, and ways of life. Additionally, research and data detailing the costs and efficacy of adaptation measures at different scales would provide valuable information as communities seek reparations for climate-related harms. Research could also focus on the monetary impact of damages and the benefits of taking proactive climate action. In general, designing litigation-relevant research through a lens of addressing losses and damages would increase the usability and longevity of the research. This theme underscores the value of integrating diverse research efforts to comprehensively address the multifaceted impacts of climate change.

Our findings highlight the pressing need for additional research to support climate litigation as well as the challenges and opportunities for scientists who want to contribute. In the two years since the first study of this kind was published (Merner, Franta, and Frumhoff 2022), the field has evolved significantly, with legal practitioners gaining a more detailed and nuanced understanding of various aspects of climate change and its impacts. We see this reflected in the more granular research areas that practitioners identified through our interviews as well as through the types of cases that are currently under way.

The role of and need for attribution science was the primary research priority identified across interviews. The emphasis on these studies reflects a deeper recognition of the need for robust scientific evidence to support legal claims, particularly to understand losses and damages, including noneconomic losses of cultural and social structures (Sesana et al. 2021). Such efforts will require comprehensive data on both economic and noneconomic losses, and the absence of reliable data may create barriers to accessing justice through the courts for communities particularly vulnerable to climate impacts. Exploring standards of evidence across jurisdictions will be a critical area of analysis to ensure that a lack of attribution science does not impede the pursuit of accountability for those most affected by climate change, particularly since drawing causal connections around impacts is difficult in areas of the world with fewer data. Specifically, pursuing justice and reparative compensation should not require findings from a dedicated attribution study.

Outside of specific areas of research, interviewees identified challenges in communication that create barriers for legal teams pursuing climate litigation and present opportunities for scientists to engage in the legal space. Participants highlighted that information regarding the implications, nuance, and complexity of existing research is not reaching the legal teams that need it. In some situations, this issue appears to result from a lack of access to experts who can provide this perspective. In others, available scientific experts seem ill-equipped to communicate information in a way that resonates with the needs and priorities of a legal audience. Training programs that bridge legal and scientific fields and placement of scientists within legal teams would begin to address this issue, ensuring that scientific evidence is effectively translated into legal and policy frameworks. Beyond informing legal teams, interviewees also raised the importance of judicial education to enable courts and judiciaries to make informed decisions and rulings around climate change. For translation, interviewees highlighted that while the IPCC reports' Summary for Policymakers are available in six languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish), the full reports that include details of specific geographies are available only in English, highlighting a critical gap in the accessibility of key scientific information to the vast majority of the world.

This study also yielded important insights about how people working in the legal and scientific spheres can better collaborate to advance climate action. For one, the difference in timelines for scientific research and legal cases was raised multiple times. Completing and publishing a novel attribution study, for instance, can take months to years, a time frame that can exceed that of an individual case. This discrepancy highlights the benefits of having scientists engage with legal teams from the outset to identify the type of science required to support a given argument and to recognize the vulnerabilities of using some kinds of research in a legal setting. In addition, interviewees noted the value of rapid and responsive research, which creates opportunities to understand dis- and misinformation, particularly with regard to misleading information arising from campaigns supported by corporations and their surrogates. Although this point was not raised by interviewees, we offer that the legal and scientific communities can work together to protect experts and safeguard their work, especially in light of the harassment, subpoenas, and intimidation lawsuits that experts have faced. By working together, scientists and legal experts can ensure the appropriate interpretation of scientific evidence for cases, alignment of timelines, and protection of experts.

Climate litigation continues to accelerate globally, increasing the importance of robust and rigorous scientific research to support cases. This study explores the priority and strategic areas for future research, highlighting how scientists can conduct litigation-relevant research and engage in legal spaces. Priority areas include attribution science, research focused on connections between climate change and human health, and economic research that quantifies the costs of climate impacts and mitigation strategies. We also identified five strategic research areas---legal and financial accountability, disinformation and greenwashing, policy and governance, environmental and social impacts, and emissions reductions and carbon management---that present opportunities for interested scientists to develop litigation-relevant research questions. Additionally, research to inform losses and damages emerged as a critical cross-cutting theme essential for addressing the multifaceted impacts of climate change that are not or cannot be avoided through mitigation or adaptation. As the impacts of climate change become increasingly severe and determination to maintain the status quo intensifies, the importance of research to inform litigation will only grow.

To identify emerging trends and strategic research areas for climate litigation for this study, we conducted 19 semistructured interviews between March and July 2024, followed by qualitative analysis. We recruited legal scholars and practitioners through a purposive sampling method (Schutt 2018), identifying potential participants through professional networks, academic publications, and recommendations from experts in the field. All interviewees hold law degrees and have been working on climate-related issues for a minimum of two years. To assess the trustworthiness of an interviewee, we evaluated their professional background, academic qualifications, and prior contributions to the field of climate litigation, ensuring that their insights were informed by substantial expertise and credibility. This approach aimed to gather insights from individuals who are actively engaged in or have substantial knowledge of climate litigation while also representing a range of geographies (Table 1). Although this method ensures the inclusion of relevant and knowledgeable participants, it may introduce selection bias.

Using a semistructured format allowed us to explore the complexity of each participant's perspective while maintaining a consistent structure across interviews. Participants were provided with a detailed consent form outlining the purpose of the study, the nature of their participation, and how their data would be used. We obtained informed consent from all interviewees prior to participation and maintained the stated confidentiality and anonymity throughout. We used a refined open-ended script developed from the previous year's feedback and evolving research priorities (Merner, Franta, and Frumhoff 2022). The script included questions about participants' perspectives on the most pressing research gaps, effective legal strategies, and types of evidence that have been most beneficial in climate litigation (Appendix 1). Interviews were conducted remotely, recorded with participants' consent, and transcribed for analysis.

The qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, following Clarke and Braun's (2013) approach. The analysis involved multiple stages: familiarization with the data through repeated readings of transcripts, generation of initial codes from significant statements, and organization of codes into broader themes. We applied an emergent coding approach, allowing themes and constructs to organically arise from the data. This inductive process enabled us to capture a wide range of insights and perspectives without being constrained by a predetermined framework. Our method emphasizes flexibility and responsiveness to the data, ensuring that the analysis remains grounded in the actual content of the interviews and discussions. Two researchers conducted the theme development, employing discussion to reach consensus to ensure robustness and resolve discrepancies. Themes were reviewed and refined through iterative discussions among the research team to ensure accuracy and relevance. Final themes were defined, named, and linked to the research questions, with the findings validated by external reviewers. Notes were maintained throughout to document decisions and ensure transparency (Naeem et al 2023). This methodology, while comprehensive, has certain limitations. The selection of participants, although resulting in a diverse group, may still reflect biases that result from purposive sampling methods. Additionally, the shift from line-by-line coding to thematic analysis, while streamlining the process, may have resulted in less granular data categorization.

Primary themes from interviewees were organized by questions and collated into a spreadsheet following each interview. We then analyzed these themes to create a litigation-relevant research agenda and compile insights for scientists and researchers seeking to become involved in litigation.

L. Delta Merner is the lead scientist for the Science Hub for Climate Litigation at UCS. Carly A. Phillips is a research scientist for the Science Hub. Kathy Mulvey is the accountability campaign director for the UCS Climate and Energy Program.

Acknowledgments

This analysis was made possible by the generous support of UCS members.

The authors thank our two external reviewers for their feedback and Pallavi Shrestha for her administrative and logistical support of this work. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the individuals who reviewed the work. The Union of Concerned Scientists bears sole responsibility for the report’s content.

Clarke, Victoria, and Virginia Braun. 2014. "Thematic Analysis." In Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology , edited by Thomas Teo, 1947--52. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311 .

Heede, Richard. 2014. "Tracing Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions to Fossil Fuel and Cement Producers, 1854--2010." Climatic Change 122: 229--41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y .

Merner, L. Delta, Benjamin Franta, and Peter C. Frumhoff. 2022. Identifying Gaps in Climate-Litigation-Relevant Research: An Assessment from Interviews with Legal Scholars and Practitioners . Providence, RI: Climate Social Science Network. https://cssn.org/cssn-research-report-2022-identifying-gaps-in-climate-litigation-relevant-research-an-assessment-from-interviews-with-legal-scholars-and-practitioners/.

Naeem, Muhammad, Wilson Ozuem, Kerry Howell, and Silvia Ranfagni. 2023. "A Step-by-Step Process of Thematic Analysis to Develop a Conceptual Model in Qualitative Research." International Journal of Qualitative Methods 22 (November):16094069231205789. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205789.

Schutt, Russell K. 2018. Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Research . 9th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Sesana, Elena, Alexandre S. Gagnon, Chiara Ciantelli, JoAnn Cassar, and John J. Hughes. 2021. "Climate Change Impacts on Cultural Heritage: A Literature Review." WIREs Climate Change 12 (4): e710. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.710.

Setzer, Joana, and Catherine Higham. 2024. Global Trends in Climate Change Litigation: 2024 Snapshot . London: Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science. https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Global-trends-in-climate-change-litigation-2024-snapshot.pdf.

Stuart-Smith, Rupert F., Friederike E. L. Otto, Aisha I. Saad, Gaia Lisi, Petra Minnerop, Kristian Cedervall Lauta, Kristin van Zwieten, and Thom Wetzer. 2021. "Filling the Evidentiary Gap in Climate Litigation." Nature Climate Change 11 (8): 651--55. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01086-7.

Wentz, Jessica, Delta Merner, Benjamin Franta, Alessandra Lehmen, and Peter C. Frumhoff. 2023. "Research Priorities for Climate Litigation." Earth's Future 11 (1): e2022EF002928. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EF002928.

Appendix 1: Interview Script

Let's begin by getting to know you a bit better. Could you please give me an overview of your professional background, specifically your expertise in and any connections you have to climate litigation?

We want to understand how scientific evidence has or has not been used to inform climate litigation and which types of evidence are most valuable for different types of cases.

-- So, for those instances where scientific evidence was used in your work, what types of evidence or research areas have you found most beneficial in supporting your cases or legal efforts?

-- In situations where scientific evidence was not used, what barriers or considerations do you take into account when deciding to include or exclude scientific research into your legal strategies?

Could you identify any specific shortcomings or gaps in the available scientific evidence? What kind of scientific data or research do you think would add value to climate litigation efforts?

What additional scientific research do you think is needed? Why do you think further research in these areas is crucial for advancing climate litigation?

In your view, which types of climate litigation hold the most promise or importance for addressing climate change and its impacts? Why do you think these areas are particularly impactful?

-- How does accountability, both for high-polluting countries, individuals and companies, factor into your thinking around addressing climate change and its impacts?

Are there any legal strategies that you are not able to pursue due to the lack of specific scientific evidence? What areas of study do you think require more in-depth investigation to support such strategies?

Could you discuss the strengths and challenges of relying on scientific evidence in climate litigation? How does this impact case outcomes and broader legal strategies?

Merner, Delta, Carly Phillips, and Kathy Mulvey. 2024. Research Areas for Climate Litigation. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. https://doi.org/10.47923/2024.15604

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