qualitative research methods a practice oriented introduction

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Introduction to qualitative research methods – Part I

Shagufta bhangu.

Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom

Fabien Provost

Carlo caduff.

Qualitative research methods are widely used in the social sciences and the humanities, but they can also complement quantitative approaches used in clinical research. In this article, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods.

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research methods refer to techniques of investigation that rely on nonstatistical and nonnumerical methods of data collection, analysis, and evidence production. Qualitative research techniques provide a lens for learning about nonquantifiable phenomena such as people's experiences, languages, histories, and cultures. In this article, we describe the strengths and role of qualitative research methods and how these can be employed in clinical research.

Although frequently employed in the social sciences and humanities, qualitative research methods can complement clinical research. These techniques can contribute to a better understanding of the social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions of health and illness. Social scientists and scholars in the humanities rely on a wide range of methods, including interviews, surveys, participant observation, focus groups, oral history, and archival research to examine both structural conditions and lived experience [ Figure 1 ]. Such research can not only provide robust and reliable data but can also humanize and add richness to our understanding of the ways in which people in different parts of the world perceive and experience illness and how they interact with medical institutions, systems, and therapeutics.

Examples of qualitative research techniques

Qualitative research methods should not be seen as tools that can be applied independently of theory. It is important for these tools to be based on more than just method. In their research, social scientists and scholars in the humanities emphasize social theory. Departing from a reductionist psychological model of individual behavior that often blames people for their illness, social theory focuses on relations – disease happens not simply in people but between people. This type of theoretically informed and empirically grounded research thus examines not just patients but interactions between a wide range of actors (e.g., patients, family members, friends, neighbors, local politicians, medical practitioners at all levels, and from many systems of medicine, researchers, policymakers) to give voice to the lived experiences, motivations, and constraints of all those who are touched by disease.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In identifying the factors that contribute to the occurrence and persistence of a phenomenon, it is paramount that we begin by asking the question: what do we know about this reality? How have we come to know this reality? These two processes, which we can refer to as the “what” question and the “how” question, are the two that all scientists (natural and social) grapple with in their research. We refer to these as the ontological and epistemological questions a research study must address. Together, they help us create a suitable methodology for any research study[ 1 ] [ Figure 2 ]. Therefore, as with quantitative methods, there must be a justifiable and logical method for understanding the world even for qualitative methods. By engaging with these two dimensions, the ontological and the epistemological, we open a path for learning that moves away from commonsensical understandings of the world, and the perpetuation of stereotypes and toward robust scientific knowledge production.

Developing a research methodology

Every discipline has a distinct research philosophy and way of viewing the world and conducting research. Philosophers and historians of science have extensively studied how these divisions and specializations have emerged over centuries.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] The most important distinction between quantitative and qualitative research techniques lies in the nature of the data they study and analyze. While the former focus on statistical, numerical, and quantitative aspects of phenomena and employ the same in data collection and analysis, qualitative techniques focus on humanistic, descriptive, and qualitative aspects of phenomena.[ 4 ]

For the findings of any research study to be reliable, they must employ the appropriate research techniques that are uniquely tailored to the phenomena under investigation. To do so, researchers must choose techniques based on their specific research questions and understand the strengths and limitations of the different tools available to them. Since clinical work lies at the intersection of both natural and social phenomena, it means that it must study both: biological and physiological phenomena (natural, quantitative, and objective phenomena) and behavioral and cultural phenomena (social, qualitative, and subjective phenomena). Therefore, clinical researchers can gain from both sets of techniques in their efforts to produce medical knowledge and bring forth scientifically informed change.

KEY FEATURES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In this section, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods [ Figure 3 ]. We describe the specific strengths and limitations of these techniques and discuss how they can be deployed in scientific investigations.

Key features of qualitative research methods

One of the most important contributions of qualitative research methods is that they provide rigorous, theoretically sound, and rational techniques for the analysis of subjective, nebulous, and difficult-to-pin-down phenomena. We are aware, for example, of the role that social factors play in health care but find it hard to qualify and quantify these in our research studies. Often, we find researchers basing their arguments on “common sense,” developing research studies based on assumptions about the people that are studied. Such commonsensical assumptions are perhaps among the greatest impediments to knowledge production. For example, in trying to understand stigma, surveys often make assumptions about its reasons and frequently associate it with vague and general common sense notions of “fear” and “lack of information.” While these may be at work, to make such assumptions based on commonsensical understandings, and without conducting research inhibit us from exploring the multiple social factors that are at work under the guise of stigma.

In unpacking commonsensical understandings and researching experiences, relationships, and other phenomena, qualitative researchers are assisted by their methodological commitment to open-ended research. By open-ended research, we mean that these techniques take on an unbiased and exploratory approach in which learnings from the field and from research participants, are recorded and analyzed to learn about the world.[ 5 ] This orientation is made possible by qualitative research techniques that are particularly effective in learning about specific social, cultural, economic, and political milieus.

Second, qualitative research methods equip us in studying complex phenomena. Qualitative research methods provide scientific tools for exploring and identifying the numerous contributing factors to an occurrence. Rather than establishing one or the other factor as more important, qualitative methods are open-ended, inductive (ground-up), and empirical. They allow us to understand the object of our analysis from multiple vantage points and in its dispersion and caution against predetermined notions of the object of inquiry. They encourage researchers instead to discover a reality that is not yet given, fixed, and predetermined by the methods that are used and the hypotheses that underlie the study.

Once the multiple factors at work in a phenomenon have been identified, we can employ quantitative techniques and embark on processes of measurement, establish patterns and regularities, and analyze the causal and correlated factors at work through statistical techniques. For example, a doctor may observe that there is a high patient drop-out in treatment. Before carrying out a study which relies on quantitative techniques, qualitative research methods such as conversation analysis, interviews, surveys, or even focus group discussions may prove more effective in learning about all the factors that are contributing to patient default. After identifying the multiple, intersecting factors, quantitative techniques can be deployed to measure each of these factors through techniques such as correlational or regression analyses. Here, the use of quantitative techniques without identifying the diverse factors influencing patient decisions would be premature. Qualitative techniques thus have a key role to play in investigations of complex realities and in conducting rich exploratory studies while embracing rigorous and philosophically grounded methodologies.

Third, apart from subjective, nebulous, and complex phenomena, qualitative research techniques are also effective in making sense of irrational, illogical, and emotional phenomena. These play an important role in understanding logics at work among patients, their families, and societies. Qualitative research techniques are aided by their ability to shift focus away from the individual as a unit of analysis to the larger social, cultural, political, economic, and structural forces at work in health. As health-care practitioners and researchers focused on biological, physiological, disease and therapeutic processes, sociocultural, political, and economic conditions are often peripheral or ignored in day-to-day clinical work. However, it is within these latter processes that both health-care practices and patient lives are entrenched. Qualitative researchers are particularly adept at identifying the structural conditions such as the social, cultural, political, local, and economic conditions which contribute to health care and experiences of disease and illness.

For example, the decision to delay treatment by a patient may be understood as an irrational choice impacting his/her chances of survival, but the same may be a result of the patient treating their child's education as a financial priority over his/her own health. While this appears as an “emotional” choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the social and cultural factors that structure, inform, and justify such choices. Rather than assuming that it is an irrational choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the norms and logical grounds on which the patient is making this decision. By foregrounding such logics, stories, fears, and desires, qualitative research expands our analytic precision in learning about complex social worlds, recognizing reasons for medical successes and failures, and interrogating our assumptions about human behavior. These in turn can prove useful in arriving at conclusive, actionable findings which can inform institutional and public health policies and have a very important role to play in any change and transformation we may wish to bring to the societies in which we work.

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Introduction to qualitative research methods

Cropley, A. J. (2021, 3rd updated, revised, and enlarged edition). Qualitative research methods: A practice-oriented introduction for students of psychology and education.

There are numerous critical analyses of qualitative methods: The purpose of the present book is not to add to these critical voices, but to make the practical aspects of qualitative research understandable and usable. It does not contain a theoretical analysis or evaluation of qualitative methods from the point of view of the philosophy of knowledge: for example, their epistemology (their understanding of what constitutes knowledge and the quality and general applicability of the knowledge they generate) or their heuristics (the techniques they use to acquire what they regard as knowledge). Instead, it focuses on everyday practice: My aim is to explain what concrete activities qualitative research encompasses and what advantages its advocates argue it brings.

Related Papers

Qualitative research methods: A practice-oriented introduction

Arthur Cropley

My goal in this book is to make the practical aspects of qualitative research understandable and usable. Accordingly, the book is not centered on a theoretical analysis or evaluation of qualitative methods from the point of view of the philosophy of knowledge: for example, their epistemology (their understanding of what constitutes knowledge and the quality and general applicability of the knowledge they generate) or the rigorousness and standardization of their heuristics (the techniques they use to acquire what they regard as knowledge). Instead, I focus on everyday practice: I explain what concrete activities qualitative research encompasses and what advantages its advocates argue it brings. Why do people do qualitative research, what do they do, how do they do it, and is it OK?

Tanu Tandon

Qualitative research methods are increasingly gaining importance among researchers who want to conduct an in-depth study of a phenomena. Qualitative research stands in contrast with quantitative methods as it is not concerned with numbers, frequencies or generalization rather with people, their experiences and see them as unique case. The inquiry done through this method is exploratory, explanatory and more humane, which takes into consideration all the aspects and looks at a situation in totality. The aim is to study each case as a whole, and generalization is not the ultimate goal but understanding a person, his life, experiences and his perspectives. This paper is an overview of qualitative research methods, its evolution, features, characteristics and various axioms of Naturalistic Inquiry. It also touches upon the themes and variations present in qualitative research. Thus, it gives a brief glimpse into theory and concept of qualitative research methods.

Khalid Arar

Book Review

Tesfaye E R E S S O Gofe , Kenenisa Debela

In this article, we examine Sarah J. Tracy's (2013) book Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact, and First Edition. Typically, we carefully read the texts we are reviewing to make sure we don't misunderstand them and underline any portions we feel are particularly important. Next, we begin by describing the subject matter and target audience of the book (since having this information first may allow readers who are not interested to skip the rest of the review, and readers who are interested to raise their attention). Next, we describe the topic's development in terms of its depth of treatment and various content-related aspects. Then we highlight the aspects of the book that, in our opinion, have strengths and shortcomings. We attempt to provide a broad assessment of the book's value and potential use. In the end, we aim to make the form as long as necessary and polish it. We discovered that the Sarah J. Tracy book was beneficial for both beginners and seasoned scholars. Since the author has extensive experience with qualitative research, their publication may present a chance to advance our comprehension of qualitative research design. Furthermore, the book contains a complete, step-by-step explanation of the methodology for evaluating qualitative quality as well as how to gather, examine, and write qualitative data. It is a complete resource for the theoretical foundations and practical application of technique and it is meant to provide graduate students and advanced academics with enough methodological material to be relevant.

Brahmdev Paswan

International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation

David Nicholls

Background: There are still many practitioners, academics and researchers who are bemused by the principles and practices of qualitative research. In the third and final article in this three part series, I look at sampling in qualitative studies, methods of data collection and analysis. Content: Building on the previous two articles, I highlight the importance of rigour and explore some of the different criteria used by researchers to demonstrate that their research is trustworthy. I include a brief discussion of some of the more recent trends in mixed-method or post-positivist research. Conclusions: Qualitative research is different in many ways to quantitative, and it cannot be approached with the same mind-set. It seeks to explore different aspects to quantitative research, focusing on the individual experience, rather than conclusions that can be drawn from large groups. Because of these differences, the two approaches to research should not be seen as alternatives, but complementary.

Seda Khadimally

Crafting a research design is a daunting task no matter what research method the researcher chooses to work with. Qualitative research study stands as one of the most rigorous and demanding—yet rewarding—research paradigms when the researchers have a narrative, a story to portray in the literature-specific both for their readers and the scientific community. With the intent to describe not only their own personal journey, but also that of those who help unravel previously unexplained phenomena, qualitative researchers undertake a central theme and refer to the lived experiences of their study participants, starting from the data collection stage to analysis and interpretation of their findings. They ask the very fundamental question words (i.e., how, why, and what) with which the study builds up to a rather more profound level. With certain philosophical underpinnings, dimensions, and approaches, qualitative researchers find themselves engaged in a plethora of words, texts, and images (Creswell, 2007). Researchers’ ontological and epistemological positioning additionally informs their choices of methods and methodology, the latter which is a theoretical perspective acting as a bridge between the two (Creswell, 2007). Regarding this and other characteristics, it is also important to note that an impeccable qualitative study design cannot be achieved without researchers’ investing a long time and finances, the resources without which a seamless research study would not be produced. With the purpose of discussing such and several more distinctive characteristics, metaphors, various research paradigms, and considerations throughout, the purpose of this paper is to shed light to what a qualitative research study essentially is, how researchers deal with it throughout the research process, when it is appropriate to conduct one and when not, its advantages, disadvantages, and others. Each component that goes into the design of qualitative research study will be handled under close lens.

ngoc diep nguyen

John W Hogan (Senior Research Fellow) , Brendan K O'Rourke , Marian Crowley-Henry , Olivia Freeman

Abstract This chapter presents a discussion on the nature of qualitative research. In it, a number of contributors to the book sit down for a general roundtable discussion on qualitative methodologies. Here they express their thinking in relation to a range of questions on qualitative methodologies put to them by the moderator, one of the editors of the volume. The objective of the chapter is to provide readers with an insight into a free flowing discussion amongst academics on the nature of qualitative research.

Dr. Awais H. Gillani

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Introduction to qualitative research methods - Part I

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
• PMID: 36909216
• PMCID: PMC10003579
• DOI: 10.4103/picr.picr_253_22

Qualitative research methods are widely used in the social sciences and the humanities, but they can also complement quantitative approaches used in clinical research. In this article, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods.

Keywords: Qualitative research; social sciences; sociology.

Copyright: © 2023 Perspectives in Clinical Research.

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Conflict of interest statement

There are no conflicts of interest.

Examples of qualitative research techniques

Developing a research methodology

Key features of qualitative research…

Key features of qualitative research methods

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Introduction to qualitative research methods – Part I

Bhangu, Shagufta; Provost, Fabien; Caduff, Carlo

Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom

Address for correspondence: Prof. Carlo Caduf, Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]

Received November 28, 2022

Accepted November 29, 2022

Qualitative research methods are widely used in the social sciences and the humanities, but they can also complement quantitative approaches used in clinical research. In this article, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods.

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research methods refer to techniques of investigation that rely on nonstatistical and nonnumerical methods of data collection, analysis, and evidence production. Qualitative research techniques provide a lens for learning about nonquantifiable phenomena such as people's experiences, languages, histories, and cultures. In this article, we describe the strengths and role of qualitative research methods and how these can be employed in clinical research.

Although frequently employed in the social sciences and humanities, qualitative research methods can complement clinical research. These techniques can contribute to a better understanding of the social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions of health and illness. Social scientists and scholars in the humanities rely on a wide range of methods, including interviews, surveys, participant observation, focus groups, oral history, and archival research to examine both structural conditions and lived experience [ Figure 1 ]. Such research can not only provide robust and reliable data but can also humanize and add richness to our understanding of the ways in which people in different parts of the world perceive and experience illness and how they interact with medical institutions, systems, and therapeutics.

Qualitative research methods should not be seen as tools that can be applied independently of theory. It is important for these tools to be based on more than just method. In their research, social scientists and scholars in the humanities emphasize social theory. Departing from a reductionist psychological model of individual behavior that often blames people for their illness, social theory focuses on relations – disease happens not simply in people but between people. This type of theoretically informed and empirically grounded research thus examines not just patients but interactions between a wide range of actors (e.g., patients, family members, friends, neighbors, local politicians, medical practitioners at all levels, and from many systems of medicine, researchers, policymakers) to give voice to the lived experiences, motivations, and constraints of all those who are touched by disease.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In identifying the factors that contribute to the occurrence and persistence of a phenomenon, it is paramount that we begin by asking the question: what do we know about this reality? How have we come to know this reality? These two processes, which we can refer to as the “what” question and the “how” question, are the two that all scientists (natural and social) grapple with in their research. We refer to these as the ontological and epistemological questions a research study must address. Together, they help us create a suitable methodology for any research study[ 1 ] [ Figure 2 ]. Therefore, as with quantitative methods, there must be a justifiable and logical method for understanding the world even for qualitative methods. By engaging with these two dimensions, the ontological and the epistemological, we open a path for learning that moves away from commonsensical understandings of the world, and the perpetuation of stereotypes and toward robust scientific knowledge production.

Every discipline has a distinct research philosophy and way of viewing the world and conducting research. Philosophers and historians of science have extensively studied how these divisions and specializations have emerged over centuries.[ 1 2 3 ] The most important distinction between quantitative and qualitative research techniques lies in the nature of the data they study and analyze. While the former focus on statistical, numerical, and quantitative aspects of phenomena and employ the same in data collection and analysis, qualitative techniques focus on humanistic, descriptive, and qualitative aspects of phenomena.[ 4 ]

For the findings of any research study to be reliable, they must employ the appropriate research techniques that are uniquely tailored to the phenomena under investigation. To do so, researchers must choose techniques based on their specific research questions and understand the strengths and limitations of the different tools available to them. Since clinical work lies at the intersection of both natural and social phenomena, it means that it must study both: biological and physiological phenomena (natural, quantitative, and objective phenomena) and behavioral and cultural phenomena (social, qualitative, and subjective phenomena). Therefore, clinical researchers can gain from both sets of techniques in their efforts to produce medical knowledge and bring forth scientifically informed change.

KEY FEATURES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In this section, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods [ Figure 3 ]. We describe the specific strengths and limitations of these techniques and discuss how they can be deployed in scientific investigations.

One of the most important contributions of qualitative research methods is that they provide rigorous, theoretically sound, and rational techniques for the analysis of subjective, nebulous, and difficult-to-pin-down phenomena. We are aware, for example, of the role that social factors play in health care but find it hard to qualify and quantify these in our research studies. Often, we find researchers basing their arguments on “common sense,” developing research studies based on assumptions about the people that are studied. Such commonsensical assumptions are perhaps among the greatest impediments to knowledge production. For example, in trying to understand stigma, surveys often make assumptions about its reasons and frequently associate it with vague and general common sense notions of “fear” and “lack of information.” While these may be at work, to make such assumptions based on commonsensical understandings, and without conducting research inhibit us from exploring the multiple social factors that are at work under the guise of stigma.

In unpacking commonsensical understandings and researching experiences, relationships, and other phenomena, qualitative researchers are assisted by their methodological commitment to open-ended research. By open-ended research, we mean that these techniques take on an unbiased and exploratory approach in which learnings from the field and from research participants, are recorded and analyzed to learn about the world.[ 5 ] This orientation is made possible by qualitative research techniques that are particularly effective in learning about specific social, cultural, economic, and political milieus.

Second, qualitative research methods equip us in studying complex phenomena. Qualitative research methods provide scientific tools for exploring and identifying the numerous contributing factors to an occurrence. Rather than establishing one or the other factor as more important, qualitative methods are open-ended, inductive (ground-up), and empirical. They allow us to understand the object of our analysis from multiple vantage points and in its dispersion and caution against predetermined notions of the object of inquiry. They encourage researchers instead to discover a reality that is not yet given, fixed, and predetermined by the methods that are used and the hypotheses that underlie the study.

Once the multiple factors at work in a phenomenon have been identified, we can employ quantitative techniques and embark on processes of measurement, establish patterns and regularities, and analyze the causal and correlated factors at work through statistical techniques. For example, a doctor may observe that there is a high patient drop-out in treatment. Before carrying out a study which relies on quantitative techniques, qualitative research methods such as conversation analysis, interviews, surveys, or even focus group discussions may prove more effective in learning about all the factors that are contributing to patient default. After identifying the multiple, intersecting factors, quantitative techniques can be deployed to measure each of these factors through techniques such as correlational or regression analyses. Here, the use of quantitative techniques without identifying the diverse factors influencing patient decisions would be premature. Qualitative techniques thus have a key role to play in investigations of complex realities and in conducting rich exploratory studies while embracing rigorous and philosophically grounded methodologies.

Third, apart from subjective, nebulous, and complex phenomena, qualitative research techniques are also effective in making sense of irrational, illogical, and emotional phenomena. These play an important role in understanding logics at work among patients, their families, and societies. Qualitative research techniques are aided by their ability to shift focus away from the individual as a unit of analysis to the larger social, cultural, political, economic, and structural forces at work in health. As health-care practitioners and researchers focused on biological, physiological, disease and therapeutic processes, sociocultural, political, and economic conditions are often peripheral or ignored in day-to-day clinical work. However, it is within these latter processes that both health-care practices and patient lives are entrenched. Qualitative researchers are particularly adept at identifying the structural conditions such as the social, cultural, political, local, and economic conditions which contribute to health care and experiences of disease and illness.

For example, the decision to delay treatment by a patient may be understood as an irrational choice impacting his/her chances of survival, but the same may be a result of the patient treating their child's education as a financial priority over his/her own health. While this appears as an “emotional” choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the social and cultural factors that structure, inform, and justify such choices. Rather than assuming that it is an irrational choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the norms and logical grounds on which the patient is making this decision. By foregrounding such logics, stories, fears, and desires, qualitative research expands our analytic precision in learning about complex social worlds, recognizing reasons for medical successes and failures, and interrogating our assumptions about human behavior. These in turn can prove useful in arriving at conclusive, actionable findings which can inform institutional and public health policies and have a very important role to play in any change and transformation we may wish to bring to the societies in which we work.

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Okoko, J.M., Tunison, S., Walker, K.D. (2023). Introduction to a Variety of Qualitative Research Methods. In: Okoko, J.M., Tunison, S., Walker, K.D. (eds) Varieties of Qualitative Research Methods. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04394-9_1

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1 Introduction

Patricia Leavy Independent Scholar Kennebunk, ME, USA

• Published: 01 July 2014
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This chapter serves as the introduction to the Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research . The first half of the chapter responds to two questions. First, the chapter addresses the question: What is qualitative research? In answering the question, the chapter reviews the major elements of research: paradigm, ontology, epistemology (which together form the philosophical basis of research), genre, methods, theory, methodology (which operate at the level of praxis), ethics, values, and reflexivity (which merge the philosophical and praxis dimensions of research). Second, the chapter addresses the question: Who are qualitative researchers? Leavy explains qualitative research as a form of bricolage and qualitative researchers as bricoleurs. The remainder of the chapter reviews the contents of the handbook, providing a chapter by chapter summary.

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Book Title: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods

Subtitle: A Helpful Guide for Undergraduates and Graduate Students in the Social Sciences

Author: Allison Hurst

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Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Psychology General
• Psychological Methods, Research & Statistics

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Guidebook and Resource, 4th Edition

ISBN: 978-1-118-76721-4

October 2015

Digital Evaluation Copy

Steven J. Taylor , Robert Bogdan , Marjorie L. DeVault

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods is a practical, comprehensive guide to the collection and presentation of qualitative data. Unique in the market, this book describes the entire research process — from design through writing — illustrated by examples of real, complete qualitative work that clearly demonstrates how methods are used in actual practice. This updated fourth edition includes all new case studies, with additional coverage of mixed methods, non-sociological settings, funding, and a sample interview guide. The studies profiled are accompanied by observation field notes, and the text includes additional readings for both students and instructors. More than just theory, this guide is designed to give you a real-world practitioner's view of how qualitative research is handled every step of the way.

Many different disciplines rely on qualitative research as a method of inquiry, to gain an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the governing forces behind it. Qualitative research asks "why" and "how," and the data is frequently complex and difficult to measure. This book shows you how to effectively handle qualitative work, regardless of where it's being applied.

• Understand the strengths and limitations of qualitative data
• Learn how experts work around common methodological issues
• Compare actual field notes to the qualitative studies they generated
• Examine the full range of qualitative methods throughout the research process

Whether you're studying sociology, psychology, marketing, or any number of other fields, especially in the social and behavioral sciences, human behavior is the central concern of your work. So what drives human behavior? That's what qualitative research helps to explain. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods gives you the foundation you need to begin seeking answers.

Steven Taylor, PhD is professor of cultural foundations of education, centennial professor of disability studies, and co-director of Syracuse University's Center on Disability Studies, Law, and Human Policy. He is the author of numerous books and articles  He was the recipient of the 1997 Research Award of the American Association on Mental Retardation, the 2003 Syracuse University Chancellor's Citation for Exceptional Academic Achievement, and the 2008 Senior Scholar Award of the Society for Disability Studies.

Robert Bogdan , PhD is a Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Social Science and Education at Syracuse University. After serving as a Peace Corps volunteer in Nigeria (1964-1966) he went to graduate school in sociology. He joined the faculty at Syracuse University in 1971. He has won many awards for his writing and teaching including an honorary doctorate degree from Stockholm University.

Marjorie DeVault , PhD is the Maxwell Professor of Teaching Excellence and the undergraduate director of the department of Sociology at Syracuse University. Her special areas of interest include gender studies, qualitative methodology, feminist studies, and social interaction. She maintains an IE website at http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/mdevault/Default.htm.