what is study assignment method

The 7 Best Study Methods for All Types of Students

These are seven effective study methods and techniques for students looking to optimize their learning habits.

• By Sander Tamm
• Jan 10, 2023

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“You must not fool yourself, and you are the easiest person to fool.” Richard Feynman

Choosing the correct study method is a crucial part of the learning process that students too often skip over. Picking the best study method for the situation can help students reach their full potential, while a poorly chosen study technique will kill any real progress, no matter how hard the student tries to study.

If you’re reading this article, you’re likely the exception, but the reality is that most students rely on ineffective study strategies. Researchers have found that between 83.6%  and  84%  of students rely on rereading: a study method that provides  minimal benefits .

There are far superior study methods out there than rereading. Methods that have been developed and researched by the world’s top learning scientists. Yet, surprisingly few students have ever heard of them. That is why utilizing them effectively will give you not only an edge but an entire leg up on the competition.

These are the seven best study methods all students should know about:

Best Study Methods

Spaced repetition.

Spaced repetition , sometimes called spaced practice, interleaved practice, or spaced retrieval, is a study method that involves separating your study sessions into spaced intervals. It’s a simple concept but a game-changer to most students because of how powerful it is.

To demonstrate how spaced repetition works, let’s bring a real-life example. Let’s say you have an exam coming up in 36 days, and your first study session begins today. In this situation, a well-optimized interval might be:

• Session 1: Day 1
• Session 2: Day 7
• Session 3: Day 16
• Session 4: Day 35
• Exam Date: Day 36

In a nutshell, it’s the opposite of cramming and all-nighters. Rather than concentrating all studying into a small time frame, this method requires you to space out your studying by reviewing and recalling information at optimal intervals until the material has been memorized.

In the 21st century, this technique has gathered increasing popularity, and it’s not without reason. Spaced repetition manages to combine all the existing knowledge we have on human memory, and it uses that knowledge to create optimized algorithms for studying. One of the most popular examples of spaced repetition algorithms is Anki , based on another popular algorithm, SuperMemo .

For example, there is no better study method for medical students than Anki-based flashcard decks. There are entire online communities surrounding medical school Anki. You can get a small glimpse of that by heading over to r/medicalschoolanki .

There, you’ll find a breadth of different medical school Anki decks to choose from, such as:

• Pepper deck
• Lightyear deck
• UWorld deck
• Premed95 deck

But, the power of spaced repetition is not at all only applicable to medical students. Anyone trying to become a better and more efficient learner can benefit from spaced repetition. Spaced repetition is used in conjunction with other study methods, and it’s especially powerful when combined with the following study method we’ll discuss: active recall.

Active Recall

Active recall , sometimes called retrieval practice or practice testing, is a study technique involving actively recalling information (rather than just reading or re-reading it) by testing yourself repeatedly. Most students dread the word “test” for good reasons. After all, tests and exams can be very stressful because they are usually the main point of measure for your academic success.

However, active recall teaches us to look at testing from another angle. Not only should we learn for tests, but we should also learn by testing. Through flashcards, self-generated questions, and practice tests, this study method uses self-testing to help your brain memorize, retain, and retrieve information more efficiently.

One study found that students who conducted only one practice test before an exam got  17%  better results right after. Two more studies conducted in  2005  and  2012 , plus a  2017 meta-analysis , yielded similar results, finding that students who used active recall and self-testing outperformed students who did not.

If you’re practicing for an upcoming exam, there’s no better study method than active recall. By using active recall, you’re essentially testing yourself dozens of times over. If you conduct these practice tests over a long period of time through spaced repetition, you’ll be able to ace any exam without cramming.

Keep in mind, though, that while very effective, active recall is also one of the most tiring study techniques on this list. It requires strong mental focus, deep concentration, and intense mental stamina. Active recall is cognitively demanding, so don’t expect to breeze through your learning materials with this method.

Next, I’ll cover my favorite time management strategy for students: the Pomodoro method.

Pomodoro Study Method

The  Pomodoro study method is a time-management technique that uses a timer to break down your studying into 25-minute (or 45-minute) increments, called Pomodoro sessions. Then, after each session, you’ll take a 5-minute (or 15-minute) break, during which you entirely distance yourself from the study topic. And after completing four such sessions, you’ll take a more extended 15-to-30-minute break.

To try the Pomodoro technique without installing any software or buying a timer, I recommend you go to YouTube. YouTube is full of Pomodoro-based “study with me” videos from channels such as TheStrive Studies ,  Ali Abdaal , and  MDprospect . Many of them include music, though, so if you’re distracted by music while studying, you might benefit from a purpose-built Pomodoro application such as TomatoTimer  or  RescueTime .

There are various benefits to using the Pomodoro method: it’s a simple and straightforward technique, it forces you to map out your daily tasks and activities, allows for easy tracking of the amount of time spent on each task, and it provides short bursts of concentrated work together with resting periods.

But, it’s also worth noting that the scientific evidence behind the Pomodoro method is mostly conjectural as there is little scientific research on its effectiveness. And another drawback of the Pomodoro study technique is that it’s not ideal for tasks that require prolonged, uninterrupted focusing. For these kinds of tasks, I recommend that you look into the closely related Flowtime method instead.

Despite that, though, I use the Pomodoro method on a daily basis myself, and it has become an integral and irreplaceable part of my workflow.

Feynman Technique

The  Feynman Technique  is a flexible, easy-to-use, and effective study technique developed by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman. It is based on a simple idea: the best way to learn any topic is by teaching it to a sixth-grade child.

While this concept is not as advanced as the super-optimized spaced repetition algorithms I covered earlier, it’s still a method that continues to be relevant nearly a century after its creation.

The Feynman Technique is a powerful learning tool that requires learners to step out of their comfort zone by breaking down even the most complex topics into easily digestible chunks. Digestible enough for the average sixth-grade child.

This may seem like an easy task at first. After all, how difficult could it be to explain something to a child? In practice, it can be very difficult because you have to simplify and explain everything in an age-appropriate manner. When you start using the method, you’ll quickly realize that unless you have fully mastered the topic, meeting a child at their level of understanding is not easy.

To explain something clearly, you need to define all unfamiliar terms, generate straightforward explanations for complex ideas, understand connections between different topics and sub-topics, and articulate what is learned clearly and concisely. The Feynman Technique forces you to learn more deeply and think critically about what you are learning, and that is also why it’s a compelling learning method.

Leitner System

The  Leitner System is a simple and effective study method that uses a flashcard-based learning strategy to maximize memorization. It was developed by Sebastian Leitner back in 1972, and it was a source of inspiration to many of the newer flashcard-based methods that succeeded it, such as Anki.

To use the method, you’ll first need to create flashcards. On the front of the cards, you’ll write the questions, and on the back, the answers. Then, once you have your flashcards ready, get three “Leitner boxes” big enough to hold all the cards you’ve created. Let’s name them Box 1, 2, and 3.

Now, you’re all set to start studying with your flashcards. In the beginning, you’ll place all cards in Box 1. Take a card from Box 1 and try to retrieve the answer from your memory. If you recall the answer, put it in Box 2. If not, keep it in Box 1. Then, you’ll repeat this until you’ve reviewed all the cards in Box 1 at least once. After that, you’ll start reviewing each box of cards based on time intervals.

Here’s an animation that shows how the Leitner System works:

Besides card placement, another important detail of the system is scheduling. Every box has a set review frequency, with Box 1 being reviewed the most frequently as it contains all the most difficult-to-learn flashcards. Box 3, on the other hand, will contain the cards you’ve already recalled correctly, which is why it does not need to be reviewed as frequently.

If you’ve never heard of the Leitner system, you might be surprised to hear that some of the world’s biggest learning platforms, such as Duolingo, use a variation to teach hundreds of millions of students. It’s particularly effective at language learning due to the ease of creating translation-based flashcards.

While I love the Leitner System for its simplicity, I don’t use it often anymore due to the lengthy setup process, and other flashcard study methods, such as Anki, tend to be more time-efficient. But, if you prefer physical flashcards over virtual ones, you should consider using the Leitner system. It’s a beautiful study technique that has stood the test of time.

PQ4R Study Method

The PQ4R is a study method developed by researchers Thomas and Robinson in 1972 – the same year as the Leitner System was conceived. PQ4R stands for the steps used for learning something new: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review. It’s commonly used to improve reading comprehension and is an essential method for students with reading disabilities.

However, the usefulness of PQ4R is not restricted to students with reading disabilities. The same six steps can be taken by any student trying to understand better what they’re reading. Improving reading comprehension is a worthy goal for any student, and if you need to read through a massive textbook for an exam, the PQ4R method offers a practical framework. It will allow you to understand all the passages of the text better and help you retain the information better.

By improving our reading comprehension, we can better synthesize information and interpret text. However, we must be careful not to let this strategy consume too much of our time in study sessions. Many modern learning scientists consider reading a passive and ineffective study strategy, and it’s best to rely on other methods when you can.

While I don’t use this study method as frequently as most other methods on this list, I still consider it an important strategy in my skill set. Whenever I need to extract the most critical details from a large textbook, I bring out the PQ4R to help me get through the information quicker while boosting memorization and retention. The PQ4R is a good study method to have ready, but it’s not something you should view as your primary strategy.

SQ3R Study Method

The SQ3R study method was developed by Francis P. Robinson in  1946  and is the predecessor of the PQ4R method. It’s a time-proven study technique that can be adapted to virtually any subject. The method’s name stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review and it can be used to study anything quicker, better, and in a more structured way than conventional methods.

While groundbreaking for its time, the SQ3R study method has the same drawbacks as the newer PQ4R method. For one, it’s mainly used for improving reading comprehension, and reading is not considered an effective study strategy anymore. Another problem the method faces is that it lacks the “reflection” component that the newer PQ4R study method brings to the table.

In addition, three of the five steps of this method involve a passive approach (surveying, reading, and reviewing) rather than an active one. Modern learning theories suggest active retrieval is far better for information retention than passive reading. Thus, I recommend using this study method only when you don’t have the time to use a more robust method, such as spaced repetition.

SQ3R is best used when you have limited time to study, and your primary source of information comes from a textbook. In such cases, the technique can be very helpful for summarizing the key points written in the source material.

Now, it’s time to start wrapping up this article.

In conclusion, there are many excellent study methods you have to choose from as a student in the 21st century. The best one for you will depend on your learning style, the material you are studying, and how much free time you have. When possible, I recommend you study using a combination of spaced repetition, active recall, and the Pomodoro method. But the other strategies listed here certainly have their uses as well. Above all, try to be flexible and keep an open mind. In doing so, you’ll be able to maximize your learning potential.

Sander Tamm

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Types of Assignments

Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington

Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.

The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses , as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, common in nursing, education and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of  your assignment writing skills.

Different Types of Written Assignments

At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone and language when writing an essay.

Components of an essay

Essays should use formal but reader friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (See the chapter Working with Information ).

If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start.  Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.

• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are approximately 10% each of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan

An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:

Table 20.1 An effective essay

An effective essay body paragraph needs to:

An effective essay conclusion needs to:

Common types of essays

You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative .  The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine or explore, you would be writing an analytical essay . If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify or assess, you would be writing an argumentative essay . Despite the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.  

Analytical essays

These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.

The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although in an analytical essay your position on the topic may be clear, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement, as is the case with an argumentative essay. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.

Argumentative essays

These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.

Case Study Responses

Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.

Students typically lose marks for not:

• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details
• Applying critical thinking
• Writing with clear structure
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources
• Using accurate referencing

When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 20.5 ). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.

The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care. 

Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.

Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.

Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case.  Reports may be written for different audiences including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 20.2 ).

Table 20.2 Explanations of different types of reports

Reflective writing.

Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning. A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary.  It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation. Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what?   (Rolfe et al., 2001).

Table 20.3 What? So What? Now What? Explained.

The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.

The 4 R’s of reflective thinking

This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning.  Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities including practice led activities, placements and internships.  Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health and Education.

Annotated Bibliography

What is it.

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (books, journals or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment piece. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.

How do I know what to include?

When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography it is important to determine:

• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer
• The type of sources on which you need to focus
• Whether they are reputable and of high quality

What do I say?

Important considerations include:

• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).

Literature Reviews

It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 20.4 ). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.

Table 20.4 Comparison of Literature Reviews

Generally, you are required to establish the main ideas that have been written on your chosen topic. You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 20.10 ). Use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 20.5 ).

Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing , popular in nursing, education and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user’s guide . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ryan, M. & Ryan, M. (2013). Theorising a model for teaching and assessing reflective learning in higher education.  Higher Education Research & Development , 32(2), 244-257. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2012.661704

Academic Success Copyright © 2021 by University of Southern Queensland is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single case or a few selected cases within a real-world context. Case study research is widely used across disciplines such as psychology, sociology, business, and education to explore complex phenomena in detail. Unlike other research methods that aim for broad generalizations, case studies offer an intensive understanding of a specific individual, group, event, or situation.

A case study is a research method that involves a detailed examination of a subject (the “case”) within its real-life context. Case studies are used to explore the causes of underlying principles, behaviors, or outcomes, providing insights into the nuances of the studied phenomena. This approach allows researchers to capture a wide array of factors and interactions that may not be visible in other methods, such as experiments or surveys.

Key Characteristics of Case Studies :

• Focus on a specific case, individual, or event.
• Provide in-depth analysis and contextual understanding.
• Useful for exploring new or complex phenomena.
• Generate rich qualitative data that contributes to theory building.

Types of Case Studies

Case studies can be classified into different types depending on their purpose and methodology. Common types include exploratory , descriptive , explanatory , intrinsic , and instrumental case studies.

1. Exploratory Case Study

Definition : An exploratory case study investigates an area where little is known. It helps to identify questions, variables, and hypotheses for future research.

Characteristics :

• Often used in the early stages of research.
• Focuses on discovery and hypothesis generation.
• Helps clarify research questions.

Example : Examining how remote work affects team dynamics in an organization that has recently transitioned to a work-from-home model.

2. Descriptive Case Study

Definition : A descriptive case study provides a detailed account of a particular case, describing it within its context. The goal is to provide a complete and accurate depiction without necessarily exploring underlying causes.

• Focuses on describing the case in detail.
• Provides comprehensive data to paint a clear picture of the phenomenon.
• Helps understand “what” happened without delving into “why.”

Example : Documenting the process and outcomes of a corporate restructuring within a company, describing the actions taken and their immediate effects.

3. Explanatory Case Study

Definition : An explanatory case study aims to explain the cause-and-effect relationships of a particular case. It focuses on understanding “how” or “why” something happened.

• Useful for causal analysis.
• Aims to provide insights into mechanisms and processes.
• Often used in social sciences and psychology to study behavior and interactions.

Example : Investigating why a school’s test scores improved significantly after implementing a new teaching method.

4. Intrinsic Case Study

Definition : An intrinsic case study focuses on a unique or interesting case, not because of what it represents but because of its intrinsic value. The researcher’s interest lies in understanding the case itself.

• Driven by the researcher’s interest in the particular case.
• Not meant to generalize findings to broader contexts.
• Focuses on gaining a deep understanding of the specific case.

Example : Studying a particularly successful start-up to understand its founder’s unique leadership style.

5. Instrumental Case Study

Definition : An instrumental case study examines a particular case to gain insights into a broader issue. The case serves as a tool for understanding something more general.

• The case itself is not the focus; rather, it is a vehicle for exploring broader principles or theories.
• Helps apply findings to similar situations or cases.
• Useful for theory testing or development.

Example : Studying a well-known patient’s therapy process to understand the general principles of effective psychological treatment.

Methods of Conducting a Case Study

Case studies can involve various research methods to collect data and analyze the case comprehensively. The primary methods include interviews , observations , document analysis , and surveys .

1. Interviews

Definition : Interviews allow researchers to gather in-depth information from individuals involved in the case. These interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the study’s goals.

• Develop a list of open-ended questions aligned with the study’s objectives.
• Conduct interviews with individuals directly or indirectly involved in the case.
• Record, transcribe, and analyze the responses to identify key themes.

Example : Interviewing employees, managers, and clients in a company to understand the effects of a new business strategy.

2. Observations

Definition : Observations involve watching and recording behaviors, actions, and events within the case’s natural setting. This method provides first-hand data on interactions, routines, and environmental factors.

• Define the behaviors and interactions to observe.
• Conduct observations systematically, noting relevant details.
• Analyze patterns and connections in the observed data.

Example : Observing interactions between teachers and students in a classroom to evaluate the effectiveness of a teaching method.

3. Document Analysis

Definition : Document analysis involves reviewing existing documents related to the case, such as reports, emails, memos, policies, or archival records. This provides historical and contextual data that can complement other data sources.

• Identify relevant documents that offer insights into the case.
• Systematically review and code the documents for themes or categories.
• Compare document findings with data from interviews and observations.

Example : Analyzing company policies, performance reports, and emails to study the process of implementing a new organizational structure.

Definition : Surveys are structured questionnaires administered to a group of people involved in the case. Surveys are especially useful for gathering quantitative data that supports or complements qualitative findings.

• Design survey questions that align with the research goals.
• Distribute the survey to a sample of participants.
• Analyze the survey responses, often using statistical methods.

Example : Conducting a survey among customers to measure satisfaction levels after a service redesign.

Case Study Guide: Step-by-Step Process

Step 1: define the research questions.

• Clearly outline what you aim to understand or explain.
• Define specific questions that the case study will answer, such as “What factors led to X outcome?”

Step 2: Select the Case(s)

• Choose a case (or cases) that are relevant to your research question.
• Ensure that the case is feasible to study, accessible, and likely to yield meaningful data.

Step 3: Determine the Data Collection Methods

• Decide which methods (e.g., interviews, observations, document analysis) will best capture the information needed.
• Consider combining multiple methods to gather rich, well-rounded data.

Step 4: Collect Data

• Gather data using your chosen methods, following ethical guidelines such as informed consent and confidentiality.
• Take comprehensive notes and record interviews or observations when possible.

Step 5: Analyze the Data

• Organize the data into themes, patterns, or categories.
• Use qualitative or quantitative analysis methods, depending on the nature of the data.
• Compare findings across data sources to identify consistencies and discrepancies.

Step 6: Interpret Findings

• Draw conclusions based on the analysis, relating the findings to your research questions.
• Consider alternative explanations and assess the generalizability of your findings.

Step 7: Report Results

• Write a detailed report that presents your findings and explains their implications.
• Discuss the limitations of the case study and potential directions for future research.

Examples of Case Study Applications

• Objective : To understand the success factors of a high-growth tech company.
• Methods : Interviews with key executives, analysis of internal reports, and customer satisfaction surveys.
• Outcome : Insights into unique management practices and customer engagement strategies.
• Objective : To examine the impact of project-based learning on student engagement.
• Methods : Observations in classrooms, interviews with teachers, and analysis of student performance data.
• Outcome : Evidence of increased engagement and enhanced critical thinking skills among students.
• Objective : To explore the effectiveness of a new mental health intervention.
• Methods : Interviews with patients, assessment of clinical outcomes, and reviews of therapist notes.
• Outcome : Identification of factors that contribute to successful treatment outcomes.
• Objective : To assess the impact of urban development on local wildlife.
• Methods : Observations of wildlife, analysis of environmental data, and interviews with residents.
• Outcome : Findings showing the effects of urban sprawl on species distribution and biodiversity.

Case studies are valuable for in-depth exploration and understanding of complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. By using methods such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and surveys, researchers can obtain comprehensive data and generate insights that are specific to the case. Whether exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, case studies offer unique opportunities for understanding and discovering practical applications for theories.

• Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers . The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544–559.
• Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research . SAGE Publications.
• Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Thomas, G. (2016). How to Do Your Case Study (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write a Methods Section for a Psychology Paper

AKA your participants, materials, design, and procedures

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily Swaim is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, and Vox.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin 

• Why You Need a Method Section
• What to Include
• Parts of the Method Section
• Additional Tips

Frequently Asked Questions

A big part of writing a psychology paper involves documenting exactly *how* you conducted your study or experiment. In other words, you need to share the methods, techniques, and tools you used to reach your conclusions or findings. That's why we call this section of your paper (surprise, surprise) the "method section."

The methods section of an APA format psychology paper provides the methods and procedures used in a research study or experiment . This part of an APA paper is critical because it allows other researchers to see exactly how you conducted your research.

At a Glance

The method section is where you get into the nitty-gritty details of your research. The four main elements that you'll cover in this section are your participants (who they are and how they were selected), your apparatus/materials (items you used to conduct your study), your design (the research design you used), and your procedure (the specific steps and process you followed). One helpful reminder: This section should provide enough information that another researcher could replicate your study.

The Purpose of a Method Section

"Method" refers to the procedure used in a research study. It includes a precise description of how the experiments were performed and why particular procedures were selected. While the APA technically refers to this section as the 'method section,' it is also often known as a 'methods section.'

The method section ensures the experiment's reproducibility and the assessment of alternative methods that might produce different results. It also allows researchers to replicate the experiment and judge its validity.

What to Include in a Method Section

So what exactly do you need to include when writing your method section? You should provide detailed information on the following:

• Research design
• Participants
• Participant behavior

The method section should provide enough information to allow other researchers to replicate your experiment or study.

Components of a Method Section

The method section should utilize subheadings to divide up different subsections. These subsections typically include participants, materials, design, and procedure.

Participants 

In this part of the method section, you should describe the participants in your experiment, including who they were (and any unique features that set them apart from the general population), how many there were, and how they were selected. If you utilized random selection to choose your participants, it should be noted here.

For example: "We randomly selected 100 children from elementary schools near the University of Arizona."

At the very minimum, this part of your method section must convey:

• Basic demographic characteristics of your participants (such as sex, age, ethnicity, or religion)
• The population from which your participants were drawn
• Any restrictions on your pool of participants
• How many participants were assigned to each condition and how they were assigned to each group (i.e., randomly assignment , another selection method, etc.)
• Why participants took part in your research (i.e., the study was advertised at a college or hospital, they received some type of incentive, etc.)

Information about participants helps other researchers understand how your study was performed, how generalizable the result might be, and allows other researchers to replicate the experiment with other populations to see if they might obtain the same results.

In this part of the method section, you should describe the materials, measures, equipment, or stimuli used in the experiment. This may include:

• Testing instruments
• Technical equipment
• Any psychological assessments that were used
• Any special equipment that was used

For example: "Two stories from Sullivan et al.'s (1994) second-order false belief attribution tasks were used to assess children's understanding of second-order beliefs."

For standard equipment such as computers, televisions, and videos, you can simply name the device and not provide further explanation.

Specialized equipment should be given greater detail, especially if it is complex or created for a niche purpose. In some instances, such as if you created a special material or apparatus for your study, you might need to include an illustration of the item in the appendix of your paper.

In this part of your method section, describe the type of design used in the experiment. Specify the variables as well as the levels of these variables. Identify:

• The independent variables
• Dependent variables
• Control variables
• Any extraneous variables that might influence your results.

Also, explain whether your experiment uses a  within-groups  or between-groups design.

For example: "The experiment used a 3x2 between-subjects design. The independent variables were age and understanding of second-order beliefs."

The next part of your method section should detail the procedures used in your experiment. Your procedures should explain:

• What the participants did
• How data was collected
• The order in which steps occurred

For example: "An examiner interviewed children individually at their school in one session that lasted 20 minutes on average. The examiner explained to each child that he or she would be told two short stories and that some questions would be asked after each story. All sessions were videotaped so the data could later be coded."

Keep this subsection concise yet detailed. Explain what you did and how you did it, but do not overwhelm your readers with too much information.

Tips for How to Write a Methods Section

In addition to following the basic structure of an APA method section, there are also certain things you should remember when writing this section of your paper. Consider the following tips when writing this section:

• Use the past tense : Always write the method section in the past tense.
• Be descriptive : Provide enough detail that another researcher could replicate your experiment, but focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary detail that is not relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
• Use an academic tone : Use formal language and avoid slang or colloquial expressions. Word choice is also important. Refer to the people in your experiment or study as "participants" rather than "subjects."
• Use APA format : Keep a style guide on hand as you write your method section. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the official source for APA style.
• Make connections : Read through each section of your paper for agreement with other sections. If you mention procedures in the method section, these elements should be discussed in the results and discussion sections.
• Proofread : Check your paper for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.. typos, grammar problems, and spelling errors. Although a spell checker is a handy tool, there are some errors only you can catch.

After writing a draft of your method section, be sure to get a second opinion. You can often become too close to your work to see errors or lack of clarity. Take a rough draft of your method section to your university's writing lab for additional assistance.

The method section is one of the most important components of your APA format paper. The goal of your paper should be to clearly detail what you did in your experiment. Provide enough detail that another researcher could replicate your study if they wanted while still keeping this section brief and succinct.

Finally, if you are writing your paper for a class or a specific publication, be sure to keep in mind any specific instructions provided by your instructor or by the journal editor. Your instructor may have certain requirements that you need to follow while writing your method section.

While the subsections can vary, the three components that should be included are sections on the participants, the materials, and the procedures.

• Describe who the participants were in the study and how they were selected.
• Define and describe the materials that were used including any equipment, tests, or assessments
• Describe how the data was collected

To write your methods section in APA format, describe your participants, materials, study design, and procedures. Keep this section succinct, and always write in the past tense.

The main heading of this section should be labeled "Method," and it should be centered, bolded, and capitalized. Each subheading within this section should be bolded, left-aligned, and in title case.

The purpose of the methods section is to describe what you did in your experiment. It should be brief, but include enough detail that someone could replicate your experiment based on this information. Your methods section should detail what you did to answer your research question. Describe how the study was conducted, the study design that was used and why it was chosen, and how you collected the data and analyzed the results.

Erdemir F. How to write a materials and methods section of a scientific article ? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):10-5. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.047

Willis LD. How to write the methods section of a research manuscript .  Respir Care . 2023;68(12):1763-1770. doi:10.4187/respcare.11437

American Psychological Association.  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2019.

Eldawlatly AA, Meo SA. Writing the methods section .  Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S20-S22. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_805_18

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards . Published 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."