calorimetry experiment report

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Qualitative analysis, calorimetry problems.

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Year 11 Chemistry Practical Investigation | Calorimetry Experiment

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How to perform the calorimetry experiment in Year 11 Chemistry Practical

A popular Year 11 Chemistry practical investigation is the calorimetry experiment. Not only is this experiment commonly performed by students during their Year 11 Chemistry course but also in the HSC Chemistry course. In this article, you will find a complete Chemistry practical report on determining the enthalpy of combustion of fuels via calorimetry.

This Year 11 Chemistry practical report on the calorimetry experiment consists of:

• Safety information 
• Practice calorimetry problems

Calorimetry Experiment

To determine the enthalpy of combustion of fuels using a calorimeter.

The standard enthalpy of combustion \small (\Delta H_c^\circ) is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard states, under standard conditions.

The steps which can be used to determine the enthalpy changes of combustion are outlined below:

Step 1: Write a balanced chemical equation of the process.

\large \text{Fuel}_{(s)/(l)/(g)} + {O_2}_{(g)} \rarr {CO_2}_{(g)} + {H_2O}_{(l)}

Step 2: Calculate the heat gained by the substance (water).

\Large q_\text{ substance} =mc\Delta T

• \small q_\text{ substance} is the heat gained by water in joules \small \text{(J)}
• \small \text{m} is the mass of water in kilograms \small (\text{kg})
• \small \text{c} is the specific heat capacity of water (4.18 × 10 3 \small \text{J kg}^{-1}\text{K}^{-1}   or 4.18 \small \text{J g}^{-1}\text{K}^{-1} )
• \small \Delta \text{ T} is the change in temperature of water in kelvin \small \text{(K)}

Step 3: Calculate the heat released by the combustion process.

The quantity of heat exchanged between the process and the substance will be the same but opposite sign .

\Large q_\text{ combustion process} = -q_\text{ substance}

Step 4: Calculate the enthalpy change of the process.

To calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion from the results of a calorimetry experiment:

\Large \Delta H_c = \dfrac{q_\text{ combustion process}}{n_\text{ combustion process}}

Since the standard enthalpy of combustion of fuels (∆H c ) is always negative, we often use the term “heat of combustion”. The heat of combustion is the absolute value of the standard enthalpy of combustion, as the amount of heat released for a specified amount of the fuel.

The equation q=mc\Delta T and the value for the specific heat capacity of water can be found on the HSC Chemistry Formula and Data Sheet .

The fuels used during this experiment are alcohols which have a general formula:

\Large C_nH_{2n+1}OH .

For example,

• Methanol has the formula \small CH_3OH .
• Ethanol has the formula \small C_2H_5OH .
• Propanol has the formula \small C_3H_7OH .
• Retort stand and clamp
• Methanol spirit burner
• Ethanol spirit burner
• Propan-1-ol spirit burner
• 250 \small \text{mL} measuring cylinder
• Thermometer (0 – 100 \small \degree \text{C} accurate to 0.1 \small \degree \text{C} )
• Electronic balance

Safety Information

• Set up the equipment as shown below. The copper can should be clamped so that the tip of the flame just touches the can when lit.
• Add 200 \small \text{mL} of cold water to the can using a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of water.
• Record the initial temperature of the water using a thermometer.
• Weigh the spirit burner with its liquid contents as accurately as possible, and record the mass.
• Light the wick and stir the water gently with a glass rod. Monitor the temperature and observe the flame.
• When the temperature has risen by about 10 \small \degree \text{C} , extinguish the flame by replacing the cap.
• Accurately record the maximum temperature for the water.
• Reweigh the burner and record its final mass.
• Examine the bottom of the can for soot accumulation. Remove soot before using the next alcohol.

Table 1: Experimental measurements and observations

Calorimetry formulas

Calorimetry calculations.

An example of the calculation of the enthalpy of combustion of methanol \small (CH_3OH) is shown below.

{CH_3OH}_{(l)} + \frac{3}{2} {O_2}_{(g)} \rarr 2{H_2O}_{(l)} + {CO_2}_{(g)}

Step 2: Calculate the heat gained by the water.

\begin{aligned} q_\text{ substance} & = mc\Delta T \\ \\ & = 200 \text{ kg} \times (4.18 \times 10^{-3} \text{J kg}^{-1}\text{K}^{-1}) \times (35.0-25.0) \text{ K} \\ \\ &= 8360 \text{ J} \end{aligned}

\begin{aligned} q_\text{ combustion process} &= -q_\text{ substance} \\ \\ &=-8360 \text{ J} \\ \\ &=-8.360 \text{ kJ} \end{aligned}

\begin{aligned} n(CH_3OH) & = \dfrac{n}{MM} \\ \\ &=\dfrac{0.55}{12.01+4\times 1.008+16} \\ \\ &=0.01716 \dots \text{ mol} \end{aligned}

\begin{aligned} \Delta H_c&=\dfrac{q_\text{ combustion process}}{n_\text{ combustion process}} \\ \\ & = -\dfrac{8.36}{0.01716 \dots} \\ \\ & = - 490 \text{ kJ mol}^{-1} \text{(2 s.f.)} \end{aligned}

A summary of the calculations for the enthalpy of combustion of methanol, ethanol and propan-1-ol is displayed in the table below.

Table 2: Calculations

Students are often asked to answer the following quantitative and qualitative analysis questions after performing a chemistry practical on calorimetry.

1. The theoretical value for the enthalpy of combustion of each alcohol is given in the table below. 

Calculate the percentage error of the experimental result compared to the theoretical result for each alcohol. 

\% \text{ error} = \dfrac{| \text{theoretical value} - \text{experimental value}|}{\text{theoretical value}} \times 100

\begin{aligned} \% \text{ error}_\text{ methanol} &= \dfrac{|-726 -(-490)|}{726} \times 100 \\ \\ & = 32.5 \% \\ \\ \% \text{ error}_\text{ ethanol} &= \dfrac{|-1368 -(-850)|}{1368} \times 100 \\ \\ &=37.9\%\\ \\ \% \text{ error}_\text{ propan-1-ol} &= \dfrac{|-2021 -(-1200)|}{2021} \times 100 \\ \\ &=40.6 \% \end{aligned}

Let’s investigate the safety, errors, reliability and accuracy of this experiment.

1. Outline two safety risks in this experiment. Describe how the risks were minimised. 

2. Account for the differences between the experimental value and the theoretical values for the standard enthalpies of combustion. 

In the experiment, not all of the heat produced was used in heating the water. Some of the heat was lost to the surroundings (heating the copper can and the air around the flame) . Since this was not taken into account in the calculations, it caused the experimental value for the enthalpy of combustion to be significantly higher than the theoretical value.

3. Assess the validity of this experiment

Validity relates to the experimental method and how appropriate it is in addressing the aim of the experiment.

The aim of this experiment was to determine the enthalpy of combustion of fuels using a calorimeter. Therefore, the validity of the experiment can be assessed based on how suitable the method was in determining the enthalpy of combustion of each fuel. 

• The enthalpy of combustion of a fuel refers to the energy released in the complete combustion of one mole of fuel. Therefore the fuels should have undergone complete combustion. However, this is not true for ethanol and propan-1-ol as black soot was observed on the base of the copper can. Black soot which is C (s) is an indication of incomplete combustion. The blue-yellow and orange flame observed during the combustion of ethanol and propan-1-ol is also an indication of incomplete combustion.
• The calculation of enthalpy made in this experiment assumes that there is no heat loss. However, this assumption is not satisfied as considerable heat is lost to the surroundings. 

Since the experimental method contains assumptions that are not valid, the experiment is not valid.

4. Suggest techniques that could be used to improve the validity of the results.

The validity of an experiment can be improved by:

• Keeping the control variables constant and preventing them from affecting the dependent variable.
• Ensuring that any assumptions made are valid.

5. What can be done to ensure the reliability of the results?

Reliability is the extent to which the experiment yields the same result each time.

The reliability can be improved by conducting more trials for each fuel, excluding outliers and averaging concordant results. Using a greater volume of water and recording results over a larger change in temperature will also reduce the percentage error, minimise the effect of random errors and improve the reliability of the results.

6. What can be done to improve the accuracy of the results?

Accuracy is the extent to which the calculated value differs from the true, accepted value.

Eliminating systematic errors arising from the incorrect use of equipment or improper calibration of instruments such as zero setting error (where the instrument does not read zero when the quantity to be measured is zero) will improve accuracy.

Using more precise measuring devices will also improve accuracy. For example, use a 0–50 \small \degree \text{C} thermometer. It will be more accurate than a 0–100 \small \degree \text{C} one as the scale divisions are smaller. Alternatively, use a digital thermometer.

For more information on how to perform quantitative and qualitative data analysis on chemistry practical investigations, read the guide on How to study on data analysis task

A calorimetry experiment was conducted to determine the molar enthalpy of combustion of ethanol \small (C_2H_5OH) , molar mass = 46.07 \small \text{g mol}^{-1} ). The following data were collected:

Question 2 

One method for improving the experimental design is to take into account the energy absorbed by the calorimeter. This energy is then added to the energy absorbed by the water to calculate the enthalpy of combustion.

Use the measurements provided below to calculate the approximate enthalpy of combustion of butan-1-ol ( \small MM =74.12 \small \text{g mol}^{-1} ). (4 marks)

Solutions to calorimetry problems

Written by Varisara Laosuksri

Varisara is a 2019 St George Girls High School graduate who achieved Band 6 in her HSC Chemistry and Physics.

Learnable Education and www.learnable.education, 2019. Unauthorised use and/or duplications of this material without express and written permission from this site's author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Learnable Education and www.learnable.education with appropriate and specific direction to the original content.

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Calorimetry for the ePIC Experiment

The Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) will deliver collisions of electrons with protons and nuclei at a wide variety of energies and at luminosities up to 1000 times higher than HERA. Precise measurement of both the scattered electron and the hadronic final state is crucial for the physics of the EIC, necessitating unique designs for the electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters in the backward (-4 < η 𝜂 \eta italic_η < -1.4), central (-1.4 < η 𝜂 \eta italic_η < 1.4), and forward (1.4 < η 𝜂 \eta italic_η < 4) regions. To ensure maximal containment of energy and acceptance for the required physics processes, the Electron-Proton/Ion Collider (ePIC) detector employs calorimetry over almost the entire polar angle. This proceedings will provide an overview of the current calorimeter designs being employed in ePIC.

1 Calorimetry at the EIC

The ePIC experiment is a general-purpose, hermetic collider detector with the goal of carrying out the broad EIC physics program  [ 1 ] . The EIC will collide electrons with protons and nuclei at center of mass energies ranging from s ≈ 30 𝑠 30 \sqrt{s}\approx 30 square-root start_ARG italic_s end_ARG ≈ 30 GeV to 140 140 140 140 GeV, at luminosities up to 10 34 ⁢  cm − 2 superscript 10 34 superscript  cm 2 10^{34}\text{ cm}^{-2} 10 start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 34 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT cm start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT - 2 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT per second  [ 15 ] . The physics of the EIC imposes stringent requirements on tracking, particle identification, and calorimetry, with each region of the detector subject to unique challenges. A few of the challenges facing the calorimeter systems (shown in Fig.  1 ) are:

Identifying and precisely measuring the scattered electron.

Measuring single particles with momenta from tens of MeV to tens of GeV.

Containing jets with energies over 100 GeV and providing information to particle-flow reconstruction algorithms.

Separating single photons from the two photons arising in decays of neutral pions.

In addition to these physics requirements, the calorimeters must be able to handle streaming readout at up to 500 kHz of event rate and radiation loads of 5 ⋅ 10 9 ⋅ 5 superscript 10 9 5\cdot 10^{9} 5 ⋅ 10 start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 9 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT (in the backward and barrel regions) to 2 ⋅ 10 11 ⋅ 2 superscript 10 11 2\cdot 10^{11} 2 ⋅ 10 start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 11 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT (in the forward region) 1 MeV neutron equivalent dose per cm 2 per year.

2 ePIC Electromagnetic Calorimeters

2.1 backward electromagnetic calorimeter.

The design of the backward electromagnetic calorimeter is driven in large part by the requirement of excellent energy resolution for measuring the scattered electron kinematics and separating pion showers from electron showers via E/p. To reduce the large photoproduction background for DIS observables, the rate of pions being misidentified as electrons should be on the order of 1-in-10000 or better for the combined system of tracking, PID, and calorimetry. The energy resolution required for the calorimeter is on the order of σ E E ≈ 2 % E ⊕ 1 − 3 % subscript 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸 direct-sum percent 2 𝐸 1 percent 3 \frac{\sigma_{E}}{E}\approx\frac{2\%}{\sqrt{E}}\oplus 1-3\% divide start_ARG italic_σ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E end_POSTSUBSCRIPT end_ARG start_ARG italic_E end_ARG ≈ divide start_ARG 2 % end_ARG start_ARG square-root start_ARG italic_E end_ARG end_ARG ⊕ 1 - 3 % . Furthermore, the design should be radiation hard, have a small Molière radius, and enable detection of photons above 50 MeV. The only realistic option for meeting all of these requirements is a homogeneous calorimeter based on scintillating lead tungstate crystals. The backward ECal design, shown schematically in Fig.  2 , is similar to that of the Neutral Particle Spectrometer currently taking data in Hall C at Jefferson Lab  [ 13 , 12 ] . The crystals are rectangular with dimensions 2x2x20 cm 3 , resulting in around 22 X 0 subscript 𝑋 0 X_{0} italic_X start_POSTSUBSCRIPT 0 end_POSTSUBSCRIPT for particles at normal incidence. The PbWO 4 scintillation light from an individual crystal is measured by a 4x4 array of Hamamatsu S14160-3010PS SiPMs. To reduce the amount of dead material between the crystals, they are supported by two thin (0.5 mm) frames of carbon fiber located at the front and back of each crystal.

2.2 Barrel Electromagnetic Calorimeter

Similar to the backward direction, the barrel region of ePIC should deliver an electron-pion separation power of 1-in-10000. To achieve this level of separation, the ePIC barrel electromagnetic calorimeter, also known as the Barrel Imaging Calorimeter or BIC, incorporates a lead/scintillating fiber design with HV-MAPS AstroPix  [ 10 , 16 ] silicon pixel detectors designed for the AMEGO-X  [ 14 ] gamma-ray astronomy missions. The barrel calorimeter is around 4.5 meters long including services, is divided azimuthally into 48 sectors, and covers pseudorapidities between -1.7 and 1.3. The Pb/SciFi section emulates the design implemented successfully in GlueX  [ 9 ] and KLOE  [ 2 ] . The Pb/SciFi bulk section of the calorimeter utilizes 435 cm-long scintillating fibers readout on both sides by 1.2 cm x 1.2 cm Hamamatsu S14161 SiPM arrays of 50 micron pixel size, of which there are 60 per sector per side. The AstroPix sensors consist of 500 μ 𝜇 \mu italic_μ m x 500 μ 𝜇 \mu italic_μ m square pixels capable of measuring dE/dx via time-over-threshold. The low power consumption of AstroPix, on the order of a few mW/cm 2 , enables them to be inserted between the layers of Pb/SciFi without substantial cooling infrastructure. The high spatial granularity of the AstroPix sensors, combined with the excellent energy resolution of the SciFi portion, enables this detector to meet the strict electron-pion and π 0 / γ superscript 𝜋 0 𝛾 \pi^{0}/\gamma italic_π start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 0 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT / italic_γ separation requirements. The energy resolution is expected to be σ E E ≈ 5 % E ⊕ 1 % subscript 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸 direct-sum percent 5 𝐸 percent 1 \frac{\sigma_{E}}{E}\approx\frac{5\%}{\sqrt{E}}\oplus 1\% divide start_ARG italic_σ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E end_POSTSUBSCRIPT end_ARG start_ARG italic_E end_ARG ≈ divide start_ARG 5 % end_ARG start_ARG square-root start_ARG italic_E end_ARG end_ARG ⊕ 1 % .

2.3 Forward Electromagnetic Calorimeter

The ePIC forward electromagnetic calorimeter builds on the Tungsten/SciFi SpaCal design studied throughout the EIC R&D effort  [ 18 , 17 ] and applied in the sPHENIX experiment  [ 5 , 6 ] . The energy resolution requirements are modest, but the detector should have the granularity and density necessary to reduce the number of high-energy π 0 superscript 𝜋 0 \pi^{0} italic_π start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 0 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT decay photon pairs being misreconstructed as single photons. The scintillating fibers run in the z-direction and are embedded in a mixture of tungsten powder and epoxy, which provides an overall density of around 10 g/cm 2 . A block of W/SciFi is 5 x 5 x 17 cm and is subdivided into four towers. Each tower is instrumented with four 6x6 mm Hamamatsu S14160 series SiPMs. The light is guided from the face of the block to the SiPM by a 2 cm light guide. This design allows for separation of π 0 superscript 𝜋 0 \pi^{0} italic_π start_POSTSUPERSCRIPT 0 end_POSTSUPERSCRIPT and photon clusters up to around 40 GeV. The expected energy resolution of the forward EMCal is σ E E ≈ 10 % E ⊕ 1 − 3 % subscript 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸 direct-sum percent 10 𝐸 1 percent 3 \frac{\sigma_{E}}{E}\approx\frac{10\%}{\sqrt{E}}\oplus 1-3\% divide start_ARG italic_σ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E end_POSTSUBSCRIPT end_ARG start_ARG italic_E end_ARG ≈ divide start_ARG 10 % end_ARG start_ARG square-root start_ARG italic_E end_ARG end_ARG ⊕ 1 - 3 % .

3 ePIC Hadronic Calorimeters

3.1 backward hadronic calorimeter.

The hadronic final state at low- x 𝑥 x italic_x is typically scattered in the backward direction, necessitating the ability to distinguish the scattered electron from energy deposits created by the final state hadrons. This ambiguity limited the precision of HERA measurements at low- x 𝑥 x italic_x . Since the energies of hadrons in the backward direction are not very high, the backward hadronic calorimeter serves primarily as a tail-catcher for hadrons and a muon identification system for decays of vector mesons. The backward hadronic calorimeter subtends the region − 4.1 < η < − 1.2 4.1 𝜂 1.2 -4.1<\eta<-1.2 - 4.1 < italic_η < - 1.2 . The design consists of ten layers of 4 cm thick non-magnetic steel and 4 mm thick plastic scintillator, producing a total depth of around 2.4 λ 0 subscript 𝜆 0 \lambda_{0} italic_λ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT 0 end_POSTSUBSCRIPT .

3.2 Barrel Hadronic Calorimeter

The ePIC barrel hadronic calorimeter is a refurbished version of the sPHENIX outer HCal, described in Refs.  [ 5 , 3 ] . The absorber consists of long magnetic steel plates tilted by 12 degrees in azimuth, as shown in the top left portion of Fig.  4 . Between the steel plates are 7 mm thick scintillating tiles, in which are embedded wavelength shifting fibers to collect the scintillation light and transport it to an SiPM on the outer radius of the detector. The 12 degree tilt ensures that a particle travelling radially will hit at least four scintillating tiles. The expected energy resolution for single hadrons is around σ E E ≈ 75 % E ⊕ 15 % subscript 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸 direct-sum percent 75 𝐸 percent 15 \frac{\sigma_{E}}{E}\approx\frac{75\%}{\sqrt{E}}\oplus 15\% divide start_ARG italic_σ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E end_POSTSUBSCRIPT end_ARG start_ARG italic_E end_ARG ≈ divide start_ARG 75 % end_ARG start_ARG square-root start_ARG italic_E end_ARG end_ARG ⊕ 15 % .

3.3 Forward Hadronic Calorimeter

The ePIC forward hadronic calorimeter, known as the Longitudinally-segmented Forward HCal (LFHCal), is designed to contain and precisely measure the high-energy hadrons produced in the forward region. The design leverages the SiPM-on-tile technology pioneered by the CALICE AHCal  [ 4 ] to provide fine spatial granularity, ideal for particle-flow algorithms. Each tower consists of steel absorber interleaved with 65 layers of eight square scintillator+SiPM tiles (See Fig.  5 ). The SiPM signals are ganged longitudinally into 7 readout channels, resulting in 56 readout channels per tower. The full detector contains 565,760 SiPMs readout via 60,928 channels of the HGCROC ASIC, developed for the CMS High Granularity Calorimeter  [ 11 ] . The LFHCal achieves an excellent energy resolution of around σ E E ≈ 44 % E ⊕ 6 % subscript 𝜎 𝐸 𝐸 direct-sum percent 44 𝐸 percent 6 \frac{\sigma_{E}}{E}\approx\frac{44\%}{\sqrt{E}}\oplus 6\% divide start_ARG italic_σ start_POSTSUBSCRIPT italic_E end_POSTSUBSCRIPT end_ARG start_ARG italic_E end_ARG ≈ divide start_ARG 44 % end_ARG start_ARG square-root start_ARG italic_E end_ARG end_ARG ⊕ 6 % . The innermost radius of the forward HCal, where the radiation load and particle energies are highest, consists of an "insert" section instrumented with hexagonal scintillating tiles. Detailed information on the insert section can be found in Refs.  [ 8 , 7 ] .

In summary, the ePIC calorimeter systems meet or exceed the challenging energy resolution requirements laid forth in the EIC Yellow Report, as can be seen in Fig.  6 . The ePIC collaboration is presently in the process of writing a technical design report that will provide detailed designs and projected performances of the calorimeters and other detector subsystems.

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