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Last Update Date: Thu, 09/02/2021 - 19:16

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Economics Doctoral Program (Ph.D., 3,5 - 5 Years)

• Department of Economics
• Faculty of Business & Economics
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The objective of the Ph.D. program in economics at Eastern Mediterranean University is to equip its graduates with the skills in economic theory, quantitative methods and policy analysis to be able to teach economics at an advanced level, and to conduct economic research and analyze economic problems and policies with a highest level of professionalism.

Candidates for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in economics are required to complete eight courses (24 credit-hours) and a dissertation. The program consists of four required core courses. In addition, the students must complete four elective courses in economics. After completing all the required courses, one is required to pass four qualifying examinations in Microeconomics, Macroeconomics, Econometrics, and the area in which they have chosen their dissertation topic. After successfully completing these examinations one must complete a Ph.D. dissertation and have one article published from the dissertation in a qualified journal in order to obtain the Ph.D. degree.

Students who wish to pursue the Ph.D. program in economics but have completed a Master's degree in another field may be admitted to the program, subject to successfully completing selected prerequisite undergraduate and graduate economics courses.

Applications to the PhD program at Department of Economics are accepted twice a year, prior to the beginning of each semester. All applicants for whom English is a second language may be required to pass an English proficiency examination, or present a recent TOEFL score above 550 for PhD candidates. PhD program requirements in addition to the Master's qualification prior to entry, vary depending on the program.

Prospective applicants are required to fill out an application form available at the Registrar's Office, and submit the completed form, together with a letter of reference and an official transcript of all graduate and undergraduate coursework completed up to the time of application. Candidates, who are not citizens of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus or the Republic of Turkey, are required in addition to submit a document of financial guarantee showing that sufficient funds are available for tuition and living expenses.

Career Opportunities

Graduates have a wide area of employment opportunities. Their knowledge and skills in economics as well as their good command of English and computer applications, as well as familiarity with global issues opens up employment opportunities in international organizations, multinational companies and public services and in private businesses.

Tel: +90 392 630 1291 Fax: +90 392 365 1017 E-mail: [email protected] Web: economics.emu.edu.tr

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PhD Economics

Koç University is one of the best places to obtain a MA or Ph.D. degree in economics. The Economics faculty at Koç University has a solid reputation as contributors to the frontiers of knowledge in Turkey and abroad.

Recently, the department has been ranked number 1 in Turkey and continues to improve its ranking in Europe and the world. Students are supported by research and teaching assistantships. They will have the opportunity to participate in the research projects of faculty members and teach their own classes so that they can develop their teaching skills further.

Programme structure

The Ph.D. is a full-time, course-based, 4-5 year doctoral program with a Ph.D. qualifier exam and a doctoral thesis (dissertation) requirement supervised by a faculty member.

Certain steps in the application process, such as applicable deadlines, application form questions or other tasks may depend on the category you choose here.

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Graduate Programs in Economics

Istanbul Bilgi University offers one of the most prominent graduate programs in economics in Turkey. MSc and PhD programs in Economics are built on a core foundation that aims to equip the student with a solid background in economic theory and application techniques.

Alumni report of İstanbul Bilgi University Economics Graduate Program is published.

Doctoral Program in Economics

The Economics Doctoral Program is designed for students who want to specialize in traditional economic analysis, such as international economics, public finance, monetary economics, financial economics. The aim of the program is to provide students with analytical and technical skills to ensure that students who are thinking to work in the public or private sector can make the right decisions when they come to decision-making positions. The students who will participate in the program may have received their undergraduate and / or graduate degrees in economics, or they may have obtained undergraduate and / or postgraduate degrees in a non-economic field, provided that they prepare themselves for a doctorate program by taking some additional courses. After the students take the first and second parts of the Advanced Microeconomic, Macroeconomic and Econometric Analysis courses in the first year; In the third semester, they complete three additional elective courses in the fields they are interested in or want to specialize in. After completing the courses, students successfully complete the written and oral proficiency exams and proceed to the thesis writing phase. The aim of the thesis is to create an original work that has the potential to contribute to the science of economics and / or to the solution of economic problems. Students who successfully complete and defend their dissertation graduate by having the title of 'phd in economics'.

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Boğaziçi university department of economics.

The Department of Economics at Boğaziçi University offers both undergraduate (BA) and graduate (MA and Ph.D.) degrees in economics. The modern analytical and quantitative methods of economics are emphasized, not merely as tools but as part of an overall approach to train students in systematic and independent critical thinking.

With a research-oriented faculty of around 24, our department provides a flourishing research environment to scholars and visiting researchers. The department accommodates two research centers, holds regular seminar series, and hosts workshops and conferences on a wide range of topics bringing together economists from Turkey and around the world.

Information about all of our programs and research activities can be found using the links on this website.

I hope you find the information on this website useful.

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Bebek, 34342 Beşiktaş/İstanbul

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• PhD Study in Turkey – A Guide for 2024

Written by Chris Banyard

A PhD in Turkey could be the perfect choice for adventurous international students looking for unique study opportunities. Turkish universities have a long tradition of international exchange, relatively low fees and offer a high quality of doctoral training.

The guide proves an introduction to everything you’ll need to know if you want to study your PhD in Turkey, including information about Turkish universities, their PhD structure, fees, application requirements and student visas.

PhD opportunities in Turkey – what’s on offer for 2024?

Bridging between Europe and Asia, Turkey has played a pivotal role in Western and Eastern history. The country abounds with historical sites and monuments and is home to a rich and diverse range of cultures. Whether you’re making these the focus of your research or just enjoying them alongside it, you’ll have plenty to explore during a Turkish PhD.

Reasons to study your PhD in Turkey right now include:

• Crossroads between East and West – Turkey is a meeting point for arts, cultures and peoples, with no shortage of iconic attractions, vibrant festivals and inspirational research ideas
• Fast-growing economy – with the second-fastest growing economy in the world and developing markets and political impact, now could be a great time to study your PhD in Turkey
• Study in English – the strong international outlook of Turkish universities means that many doctoral programmes are taught in English
• Affordable – low living costs and tuition fees make Turkey a good value destination for PhD study

PhD life in Turkey

Want to know more about life during a PhD in Turkey for international students? Our detailed guide covers everything from accommodation and living costs to culture and entertainment.

Turkish universities

Universities and other higher education providers in Turkey are divided into public (or state) and private (or foundation) institutions:

• Public universities ( Delvet Universiteleri ) are funded mostly by the state. As a result, they charge relatively low tuition fees. They may use Turkish, English, German or French as their language of instruction.
• Private / Foundation universities ( Ozel / Vakif Universiteleri ) typically charge high tuition fees but tend to be more active internationally, form partnerships with industry, and usually use English for most (if not all) courses and programmes.

All Turkish universities are governed by the Turkish Higher Education Council (YOK) . This ensures Turkish universities are internationally competitive and adhere to high standards of teaching.

Turkish university cities

There are several cities in Turkey with one or more universities and large numbers of students:

• Study in Istanbul
• Study in Ankara
• Study in Antalaya
• Study in İzmir
• Study in Kayseri

Turkish university rankings

Turkey has several universities that feature in the all three major university rankings tables, some of which are amongst the top 600 in the world according to these tables.

Do rankings matter for PhD study?

University rankings can help you choose a PhD project or programme, provided you know what to look at. Our guide explains how to use rankings as a prospective postgraduate.

PhD-structure

Partly due to Turkey’s candidacy for EU membership, Turkish degrees follow the Bologna Process. Therefore, doctoral programmes in Turkey are broadly similar to other European PhD programmes.

However, Turkish PhDs typically follow a very structured process with well-defined stages and assessments. This includes several courses, seminars and exams to a total of 240 ECTS credits. There may also be a preparatory class at the beginning of your programme. Specific content will vary between universities and programmes, but all taught components must be completed for you to be awarded your PhD.

Supervision

In Turkey, your doctoral development and thesis will be overseen by various supervision committees . Your main thesis supervisor will be a member of most of these committees. They will be an academic lecturer with expertise in your research area and will be appointed within the first year of your PhD. You may have a second supervisor, who can also be a member of these committees.

Proficiency exam

Proficiency exam Firstly, you will be examined through the proficiency exam at the early stages of your doctorate. This is similar to the MPhil to PhD upgrade in the UK. A proficiency committee will examine your thesis proposal through two written assessments and one oral assessments. The proficiency committee also sets up an exam jury committee , who organise and evaluate various exams during the remainder of your doctoral training; the results of these exams will also be considered by the proficiency committee.

Follow-up exam

After successfully completing the proficiency exam and defending the purpose of your research, you will begin your PhD proper. During the doctorate you will be regularly assessed every six months by a follow-up committee . This functions as a regular evaluation of your progress, ensuring your PhD is on track. The committee will examine your current studies, results, methodology and the working plan for your research through a submitted report.

Final thesis exam

Once you have completed your research, your final PhD thesis will be assessed by a dissertation jury . This is similar to the viva voce exam in the UK, but it takes the form of a public thesis defence.

Fees and funding

Overall, Turkey is an affordable location for doctoral study. In most cases, you can expect to pay low tuition fees and living costs. There are also some limited funding sources available for international students.

Turkish PhD fees

The tuition fees for English-taught PhD programmes at Turkish public universities are low, typically being around €500-1,000 per year for international students. Fees are even lower for Turkish citizens and for courses taught in Turkish. Bear in mind that exact amounts can vary somewhat depending on your university and doctoral programme.

PhD tuition fees at private universities in Turkey are significantly higher – around €5,250-17,500 per year. However, there are more funding options available at these institutions.

Living costs

In addition to low tuition fees, studying for a PhD in Turkey offers good value for money due to the low cost of living in Turkish cities. Accommodation, food, entertainment and travel are all affordable in comparison to other countries. Normally, you can expect to spend around €345 per month.

Turkish PhD funding

Because PhD tuition fees at Turkish public universities are relatively low, doctoral funding is typically offered to Turkish nationals or students from more economically disadvantaged countries. Some of the funding sources available are:

• Türkiye Burslari – a variety of scholarships funded through the Turkish government, aimed at students from Central Asia, Africa, the Middle East and eastern Europe
• Tübitak – the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey offers research fellowships, but mostly for Turkish students
• Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) – funds PhD research programmes in Sustainability Science for students in IsDB member countries and Muslim communities

Additionally, individual universities often offer their own merit scholarships and grants for international PhD students.

Applying for a PhD in Turkey

Applications for doctoral degrees in Turkey can be slightly different compared to applications in the UK, mainly because of the use of entrance examinations. However, the overall process follows a similar route to most PhD applications.

The specific requirements and procedures can vary depending on your research institution and area of study – you should contact your potential university’s international office for more specific information.

Admission requirements

PhD programmes in Turkey require you to hold relevant Bachelors and Masters degrees to be eligible. Most degrees from within Europe will be easily recognised, but different foreign degrees may require additional recognition to be accepted as equivalent qualifications.

Additionally, to be accepted for a doctoral programme in Turkey you will usually need to submit some form of research proposal . It is recommended that your contact your prospective supervisor and / or university before applying to help with this. You will usually also need to submit academic references and will often need to attend an interview .

PhD entry requirements

The general eligibility criteria for PhD applications in Turkey is similar to most other countries in the Europe. Our guide explains general entry requirements for a prospective PhD student.

Entrance examinations

As a PhD applicant to a Turkish university, you will need to complete entrance exams to verify your subject knowledge and academic experience.

The major test used in Turkey is the Academic Personnel and Graduate Education Entrance Exam (ALES). The score required can vary somewhat but is usually a minimum of 50-70. The exams are held at scheduled times throughout the year, and you can found these dates and more information about the ALES at the examination coordinators ÖSYM .

You may also be accepted based upon the scores of alternative international admissions tests, such as the GMAT (typically requiring a minimum score of 500) and the GRE (typically requiring a minimum score of 685).

More information regarding the entrance examinations you will be required to take will be available from your prospective university.

Language requirements

Many PhD programmes in Turkey use English as the language of instruction. This is increasingly common and is often the case for newer Turkish institutions. To be admitted to one of these doctoral programmes as a non-native English speaker, you may be required to submit a score from an English language test . These may be internationally recognised tests such as TOEFL or IELTS, or be a test offered by the Turkish examination coordinator ÖSYM .

Even if your degree is not taught in Turkish, learning the language will be helpful for in your studies and in daily life.

Applying for a PhD

PhD applications in Turkey will require additional documents and processes. These are similar to those in the UK. Our guide explains PhD applications for prospective students.

Student visas

In order to enter and live in Turkey for your PhD, you will be required to obtain a student visa and register your residence. Your prospective university will also assist you with these processes.

As Turkey is not yet a full EU member state, most international students wishing to study a PhD at a Turkish university must obtain a student visa (including those from the EU, EEA and Switzerland).

This can be done at the nearest Turkish consulate in your home country and should completed ahead of your travelling to Turkey (you will not be allowed to enter the country nor enrol at university until this is finalised).

Alternatively, you can apply for an eVisa – this method is simpler, faster and usually slightly cheaper.

There is an application fee associated with each visa application. The specific amount varies depending on your country of origin but is usually around €20-50.

Residence registration

To live in Turkey, all foreign students must obtain a residency permit ( Ikametgah Belgesi ). This must be done within one month of residence in Turkey.

This can be done online on Turkey’s Ministry of Interior Directorate General of Migration Management (IKAMET) or in person at a Bureau of Foreign Residence Registration or local police station.

Health insurance

Whilst resident in Turkey during your doctorate, you are required to be covered by a form of health insurance. You can register with Turkey’s Social Security Institution (SGK) or organise your own private insurance policy.

A Turkish PhD is an internationally recognised degree and an impressive achievement. The demanding admissions and assessments of a PhD in Turkey may also make you stand out from the crowd.

The unique location of Turkey at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, and the multiculturism that it brings, should also prepare you for an academic or professional career on the global stage.

Can I work in Turkey after my PhD?

Typically, proficiency in the Turkish language is needed to pursue a career in Turkey. However, this is not always these case – there are several multinational companies based in Turkey.

To work in Turkey, you will need to apply for a work permit ( Calisma Izni ). The application process can be complex, and you may be required to leave Turkey and apply from your home country. Work permits are usually initially valid for one year, and the duration of validity increase with each subsequent renewal.

You will also need to update your visa and residency permit to reflect your new employment status.

Find a PhD in Turkey

Ready to start browsing some current PhD opportunities in Turkey ? Alternatively, you can look at our other guides to PhD study abroad .

Our postgrad newsletter shares courses, funding news, stories and advice

Chris banyard.

Chris helped expand our student advice content in 2018, whilst working towards a PhD at the University of Sheffield. He shared honest and amusing advice on making mistakes, accidental self-sabotaging and managing rejection during a doctorate as well as reflecting on his own experience skipping a Masters before his PhD.

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What's it like to live in Turkey during a PhD? Our guide covers accommodation, student living costs, working and other key information.

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PhD Economics programs in Turkey

Deadline information, best universities with economics in turkey.

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4 PhD Degrees in Economic Studies in Turkey for 2024

Popular degree type

Popular study format

Popular education type

PhD Degrees in Economic Studies

Economics is an area of study that explores topics of wealth, banking, finance, buyer and distributor trends, recessions and more. This subject deals with the production and consumption of goods and services as they relate to individuals, businesses and nations.

Universities in Turkey provide either two or four years of education for undergraduate studies, while graduate programs last a minimum of two years. There are around 820 higher education institutions in Turkey including 76 universities with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. The quality of education at the Turkish universities varies greatly, some providing education and facilities on par with internationally renowned schools.

Requirements for the PhD program often involve the student having already obtained a Master’s degree. Additionally, a thesis or dissertation primarily consisting of original academic research must be submitted. In some countries, this work may even need to be defended in front of a panel.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Economics

The Department of Economics provides a first-class research environment, equipping students with the resources necessary to excel in their academic pursuits. Each doctoral candidate is allocated:

• a dedicated office workspace
• advanced computing facilities
• a supportive community of fellow PhD researchers
• personalised regular guidance through meetings with your two dedicated supervisors
• comprehensive research methods training

Additional support

St Leonard's Postgraduate College at the University of St Andrews offers supplementary resources and support services, enhancing the overall postgraduate experience.

Academic engagement opportunities

Seminar series.

• External Speaker Series : regular presentations by renowned scholars in the field
• Brown Bag Series : weekly staff seminars promoting internal knowledge sharing

Reading groups

These sessions provide a platform for:

• staff and PhD students to present work-in-progress
• informal exchange of research ideas
• constructive feedback from faculty members in a supportive environment

Annual PhD conference

This flagship event is a mandatory doctoral seminar where:

• students showcase their research progress
• the entire Business School community engages with ongoing projects
• valuable presentation experience is gained in a professional setting

Cultivating excellence

Through this comprehensive approach, the Department of Economics creates an intellectually stimulating atmosphere that nurtures academic growth, fosters innovation, and equips you with the skills and knowledge to excel in both academia and industry .

For ideas about research interests in the Department, you can view the latest published research output of our staff on the research portal .

Programme structure

The typical PhD roadmap has the following checkpoints:

During this year you will usually take some modules to complete your training. The specific modules you take will depend on your individual background and will be decided by your potential supervisor and the Director of Postgraduate Research Students .

You will meet regularly with your supervisor and start work on your research. You will contribute to and present your work at the research students’ PhD workshop in May.

Before the end of your first nine months in the programme, you will have a progress review. This review should be based on research completed to date and should include a plan of your work for the remainder of your first year, and for your second and third years. After submitting your written work, you will have a meeting with two reviewers (from the Business School) which will complete your review process.

You may have the opportunity to take part in masterclasses or short training courses on topics or software in other universities, depending on funding. This will increase your knowledge of these topics and allow you to interact with other scholars working in your areas at other universities.

The Royal Economic Society provides financial support for macro and micro economics training. The  Easter Training School is intended primarily for advanced postgraduate students doing doctoral research.

You may be asked to take part in tutorial teaching for sub-honours classes (first and second year students), which will give you experience and increase your skill set for future employability.

You will be in a more intensive stage of your course, carrying out the necessary research, modelling and empirical studies required for the second and third parts of your thesis. You will be expected to send drafts of your papers to be considered for presentation at PhD student workshops and other conferences.

You will contribute to and present your work at the research students’ PhD workshop in May.

End of second year review: this will be similar to your first year progress review.

You will spend this year trying to complete the research for your thesis and focus on submitting the final draft and having your viva defence.

You may continue to carry out undergraduate tutorial teaching and increase your experience as a tutor.

You will be in an intensive stage of your course, carrying out the necessary research, modelling and empirical studies required for the final parts of your thesis. You will be expected to send drafts of your papers to be considered for presentation at PhD student workshops and other conferences. It would also be good to try and complete a draft of a journal article to submit to a reputable refereed journal. All of these are opportunities for valuable feedback on your work before your final submission.

You will complete and submit a final draft of your thesis and have your viva defence. During the year you will continue working on publications, conferences, and even applications for funding, as you will now be ready to enter the job market.

Research methods training

In the first year of the programme, depending on your background, you may be asked to take some modules from taught MSc programmes. These modules will most likely be from the MSc in Economics or the MSc in Finance and Economics degrees, or from the modules taught as part of the Scottish Graduate Programme in Economics , either at an MSc or a PhD level.

Other training options

Enhance your training through masterclasses led by visiting academics or offered by other Scottish economics departments. The University of St Andrews provides further development opportunities for PhD students through GRADskills and other programmes offered by the Centre for Educational Enhancement and Development ( CEED ) training unit.

Theses and dissertations

The Department of Economics maintains a repository of PhD theses for viewing. The list of recent submissions offers a partial collection of completed and examined theses from doctoral candidates within the Department of Economics (part of the former School of Economics and Finance). Please note that some print theses may not be available digitally.

Ph.D. in Economics

The Ph.D. Program in Economics at Georgia Tech has research strengths in the applied areas of health, energy & environmental economics, global development, international economics, market design, and game theory. Underpinning all our applied fields are strengths in microeconomic theory and statistical methods. 

The program prepares students for research careers in academics, government, and the private sector.

Students in the Ph.D. program benefit from:

• Enthusiastic faculty to mentor students
• High faculty-to-student ratio
• Exceptional research opportunities at the Health Economics and Policy Innovation Collaborative (HEPIC), the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) , the Atlanta Research Data Center (ARDC) , and the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta
• Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Ph.D. Program certification 1
• Core curriculum strengths in Microeconomic Theory and an exceptionally strong Econometrics sequence
• Georgia Tech Ph.D. Interdisciplinary Minor
• Tech to Teaching Certificate for the graduate teaching assistants, including opportunities to teach your own courses
• Competitive financial support for select students
• Georgia Tech’s location in the dynamic Midtown area of the city of Atlanta , one of the fastest-growing metro areas in the country

During the first year of the program, our students concentrate on the core areas of Econometrics and Microeconomic Theory. In the second year of the program, students choose one or more fields of specialization and begin focusing on their dissertations.

We offer competitive support packages through the Georgia Tech Graduate Teaching and Research Assistantships for select students. Please, consult the rest of the site for additional information. 

Newly admitted Ph.D. students start their program in the Fall semester of each academic year. The application deadline for the Ph.D. in Economics program is Feb. 1  for admission in the Fall semester.

To be considered, applications must be completed with all supplemental materials submitted to the Georgia Tech Office of Graduate Studies  by the posted deadline. Please contact Justin Burkett for more information on our Ph.D. program.

1 STEM certification also benefits international students who can, upon graduation, apply for a STEM Optional Practical Training (OPT) visa extension that allows them to work in the United States for up to 29 months rather than one year.

The origins of capitalism in Turkey: the transition debate revisited

• Original Research
• Published: 17 September 2024

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• Eren Duzgun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9423-4147 1  

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The transition to capitalism has been one of the most perennial questions in the field of historical sociology. A distinct brand of historical materialism known as Political Marxism (PM) has offered critical insights into the “transition debate,” which have yet to be systematically applied to the case of Turkey. Utilizing a theoretical framework informed by PM, this article problematizes the conventional narratives of the “transition” in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey (1850–1950). It contends that no capitalism developed in Turkey until the 1950s; that is, the conditions conventionally thought to be indicators of capitalist development—such as property rights, wage labor, and accumulation of industrial and mercantile wealth—did not result in a (peripheral) capitalism in Turkey as usually assumed. By revisiting the “transition debate,” therefore, this article seeks to re-periodize the development of capitalism in Turkey, which in turn prompts a fundamental rethinking of both the past and present of Turkish modernity.

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Introduction

The Young Engels and the Critique of Capitalism: His Influence on the Young Marx

Political Economy of Transformation of Capital Structure in Turkey: A Historical and Comparative View

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Here, “contingency” in no way means mere accident or luck of a purely external and nonsociological nature. Rather, it is a social phenomenon that is related to the open-ended character of class and geopolitical struggles and can be explained by analyzing the variations in the degree of self-organization of the ruling and producing classes (Brenner 1985a : 36).

This is not to deny that states under capitalism continue to intervene into markets, yet even the most “interventionist” capitalist (welfare) states aim not to decommodify but recommodify land and labor (at least in the long run).

PM has not been without its critiques. Critics of PM often accuse it of adopting a narrow conception of capitalism, as well as of reproducing internalism and Eurocentrism. Space constraints preclude an engagement with these critiques here. For a defense of PM, see Duzgun 2020 , 2024 ; Post 2014 ; Heideman and Birch 2013 .

Article 21 reads in Turkish as the following: “Herkes usulen mutasarrıf oldugu mal ve mülkten emindir. Menafii umumiye için lüzumu sabit olmadıkça ve kanunu mucibince deger bahası peşin verilmedikçe kimsenin tasarrufunda olan mülk alınamaz” (quoted in Gözler 1999 : 30).

Extraction of “absolute surplus value” requires the “formal subordination” of labor to capitalist discipline, i.e., the discipline secured without transforming the technological content of the labor process. “Relative surplus value” requires the “real subsumption” of labor to capital based on the systematic application of techniques and technologies improving labor productivity. For Marx, relative surplus value represents “a specifically capitalist form of production” or “capitalist production proper” while absolute surplus value is a prerequisite to the rise of relative surplus value (Marx 1996 : 1019–38). However, “formal subordination,” if understood merely as employment and extension of wage-labor, may not necessarily encompass “real subordination” within itself as a developmental tendency. Put differently, for one to assume the existence of capitalism in a wage-labor relationship, formal subsumption must be shown to be increasingly subjected to the competitive and productivist pressures peculiar to the capitalist mode of production. Only thereafter can one assume a “necessary” relation between formal subordination and real subsumption, i.e., only thereafter can formal subordination be conceptualized as conducive to the real subsumption of labor to capital and to the rise of capitalism; see Sayer 1987 : 36.

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Duzgun, E. The origins of capitalism in Turkey: the transition debate revisited. Dialect Anthropol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10624-024-09739-7

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