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Elements of Scientific Thinking: A Guide to Effective Inquiry

Scientific thinking is a crucial aspect of modern-day society, as it enables individuals to approach complex situations and problems systematically and rationally. Central to this skillset is the scientific method, which comprises essential components such as hypothesis formulation, induction, deduction, experimental design, causality, and hypothesis testing. Understanding and implementing this style of reasoning allows for more informed decisions and efficient problem-solving across numerous fields, from everyday life to academia and industry.

The development of scientific thinking involves the ability to identify patterns, consider alternative explanations, and collect evidence to support or refute proposed hypotheses. As individuals grow, their capacity to perceive causal relationships and initiate inductive reasoning expands, allowing them to recognize links between observations and underlying mechanisms. This cognitive progress is further enhanced through group collaboration, fostering a more comprehensive consideration of diverse perspectives and potential solutions.

Incorporating scientific thinking into one’s daily life and endeavors has far-reaching implications beyond the realm of science. The critical thinking skills and logic that stem from engaging with the scientific method can be applied to a variety of situations, ultimately empowering individuals to make well-reasoned choices and better understand the world around them.

Fundamentals of Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking is a crucial aspect of understanding the world around us. It refers to the thought process and reasoning involved in the field of science, encompassing various techniques such as observation, induction, deduction, and experimental design 1 . It enables us to draw conclusions based on evidence, helping us develop our knowledge and understanding of various phenomena. In this section, we will discuss the fundamental elements of scientific thinking that are essential for success in any scientific pursuit.

Observation is the first step in scientific thinking. It involves using our senses and tools, such as microscopes or telescopes, to gather information about the surrounding world. Observations can be qualitative, describing the qualities of a phenomenon, or quantitative, measuring specific aspects of a phenomenon. Accurate and unbiased observations form the basis of scientific inquiry, as they provide data that can be used to generate hypotheses and inform further experimentation 2 .

Knowledge plays a significant role in scientific thinking. Both pre-existing knowledge and newly acquired knowledge through observations and experiments contribute to the development of new scientific theories and understanding. Scientists must have a solid foundation in their respective fields to accurately interpret observations and design meaningful experiments. The growth of scientific knowledge is an ongoing process, with scientists continuously building upon the work of others and refining theories as new information becomes available 1 .

The scientific method is at the heart of scientific thinking . This systematic approach involves several key steps:

• Observing a phenomenon of interest and developing a research question.
• Formulating a hypothesis based on observations and existing knowledge.
• Designing and conducting controlled experiments to test the hypothesis.
• Analyzing data and drawing conclusions from the experimental results.
• Using the conclusions to refine the hypothesis or develop new hypotheses and repeating the process 3 .

By following the scientific method, scientists can minimize biases, control variables, and ensure the validity and reliability of their findings. This process also promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills, allowing scientists to continuously refine their understanding of the world.

In conclusion, scientific thinking is a valuable tool for understanding the natural world and advancing human knowledge. The fundamentals of scientific thinking, including observation, knowledge, and the scientific method, are essential to the successful pursuit of any scientific endeavor. By employing these principles, scientists are better equipped to draw accurate conclusions, develop new theories, and make significant contributions to their fields.

Hypothesis Formation

One of the essential elements of scientific thinking involves the process of forming a hypothesis . A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement that aims to explain the relationship between variables, based on certain assumptions. It serves as the foundation of a scientific investigation, guiding researchers to make predictions and design experiments.

Inductive Reasoning

Francis Bacon and René Descartes greatly influenced the development of the scientific method by emphasizing the importance of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations. In the context of hypothesis formation, researchers use inductive reasoning to identify patterns and relationships between variables from gathered data and propose a hypothesis based on those observations.

A testable hypothesis enables scientists to design experiments or observations that can either support or refute the statement. It is crucial to clearly define the variables involved in the hypothesis and specify the conditions under which the hypothesis would hold true. This ensures a clear and accurate assessment of its validity.

For a hypothesis to be considered falsifiable , it must be possible to conceive a scenario where the prediction is proven incorrect. This quality allows scientists to objectively evaluate the hypothesis and discard it when evidence contradicts it, ensuring the progression of scientific knowledge.

When forming a hypothesis, scientists often make certain assumptions . These assumptions can be based on accepted theories, previous research findings, or common-sense logic. Assumptions help simplify complex phenomena and establish a basis for further investigation. However, it is essential to critically assess these assumptions as they may introduce bias or errors into the research process.

In conclusion, hypothesis formation is a critical aspect of scientific thinking , as it establishes the foundation for scientific inquiry. By utilizing inductive reasoning to develop testable and falsifiable hypotheses, researchers bring clarity and objectivity to their investigations, enabling the scientific community to continually expand its understanding of the world around us.

Experimental Process

Controlled experiments.

A key aspect of the scientific method is the controlled experiment . In this type of experiment, researchers create a controlled environment, usually within a lab , where they can manipulate variables and observe their effects. The primary goal is to achieve reliable results by eliminating external factors that may influence the outcome.

Controlled experiments involve two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group receives the treatment or manipulation, while the control group remains unaltered. By comparing the results of both groups, scientists can determine if the change in the experimental group is due to the variable being tested or other uncontrolled factors.

To ensure consistency in their results, researchers also need to choose a suitable sample size. This allows them to make inferences about a larger population based on their findings. Moreover, controlled experiments are often replicated by other scientists to confirm the validity of the conclusions.

Field Research

On the other hand, field research involves collecting data outside the controlled environment of a lab . Field research is particularly valuable in areas where natural settings play a critical role in understanding the phenomena under investigation (e.g., ecology, anthropology, geology).

There are various methods of field research, including:

• Direct observations: Researchers observe the subject in its natural environment without interfering.
• Surveys and questionnaires: These tools allow researchers to collect data from a large group of participants.
• Interviews: In-depth discussions with individuals help researchers gather more detailed information.

Although field research lacks the controlled setting of laboratory experiments, it offers a more naturalistic perspective on the subject under investigation. This approach enables researchers to study complex interactions and real-world events that are not easily replicated in the controlled environment of a lab.

Both controlled experiments and field research are essential components of the experimental process in the scientific method. Each has its strengths and limitations, but both contribute to the overall understanding and advancement of scientific knowledge. In many cases, a combination of these methods is used to validate and expand on the findings of a single study.

Collecting and Analyzing Data

Collecting and analyzing data are essential components of scientific thinking. These processes involve gathering empirical data through observations and experiments, then examining the information to establish patterns, relationships, and insights.

The first step in data collection is to define the objectives of your research clearly. This helps ensure you’re focusing on the correct variables, directing your efforts towards obtaining relevant data. It’s crucial to employ appropriate techniques and use reliable tools to gather accurate and comprehensive data. This encompasses both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) data that contribute to answering your research question.

Various methods can be employed to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, and experiments. It’s essential to choose the method that suits your research question and target population best. Furthermore, proper planning and attention to detail during this phase ensure that the resulting data is reliable and valid.

Once the data is collected, the next step is to analyze and interpret the information. This involves organizing, processing, and exploring the data set to identify patterns, relationships, and trends. Different approaches to data analysis include descriptive (summarizing the data), exploratory (searching for relationships), predictive (forecasting outcomes), and inferential (generalizing findings to a larger population).

To ensure accurate and meaningful results, it is crucial to employ appropriate statistical methods and software during the analysis phase. Additionally, data visualization techniques, such as plots, charts, and graphs, can prove beneficial in understanding and communicating findings effectively.

Incorporating the principles of scientific thinking and maintaining a confident, knowledgeable, neutral, and clear tone when discussing data collection and analysis ensures robust, reliable, and valid findings. By accurately gathering and interpreting empirical data, observations, and information, researchers can draw meaningful conclusions that contribute to the development and understanding of various fields and disciplines.

Making Predictions and Testing Hypotheses

One of the essential elements of scientific thinking is the ability to make predictions and test hypotheses. This process is crucial for advancing our understanding of the natural world and solving problems in various fields. In this section, we will discuss the importance of predictions, the formulation of hypotheses, and the significance of experimentation in scientific thinking.

Predictions play a vital role in science as they help guide the experimental process. Scientists start by making an observation and formulating a question to investigate the observed phenomenon. They then propose a hypothesis , which is a testable explanation for the observation. The hypothesis should be falsifiable and testable, as reflected in an “If…then” statement summarizing the idea 1 . Based on their hypotheses, scientists make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or future observations.

Experimentation is the backbone of the scientific process. It allows scientists to test their predictions and gather empirical evidence to support or refute their hypotheses 2 . During an experiment, researchers carefully control variables and record data to ensure accurate results. This often involves repetition to verify the findings and eliminate random errors or biases.

It is essential to acknowledge that scientific thinking is an iterative process. The outcomes of experiments can either support a hypothesis, leading to the development of a theory or model, or disprove it, sending scientists back to the drawing board 3 . This cycle helps refine our understanding and contributes to the growth of scientific knowledge. Ultimately, this process allows us to make increasingly accurate predictions about the world around us.

In conclusion, the ability to make predictions and test hypotheses through experimentation drives scientific progress. By formulating testable explanations, making predictions, and conducting experiments, we enhance our understanding of the natural world and improve our problem-solving capabilities.

Drawing Conclusions and Forming Theories

Drawing conclusions is an essential step in scientific thinking. After conducting experiments, analyzing data, and interpreting results, researchers aim to make informed statements about their findings. These conclusions are supported by empirical evidence, and they often contribute to the development, modification, or refutation of existing theories.

One crucial aspect of scientific conclusions is that they should not be taken as absolute truths. Since every scientific investigation has limitations, the results obtained are not definitive proof of a theory but rather evidence that supports or contradicts it. Researchers must remain cautious in making claims, taking into account the fact that all scientific knowledge is open to further scrutiny and revision.

The formation and evolution of scientific theories are closely related to the process of drawing conclusions. Theories are explanatory models that attempt to account for observed patterns or relationships in the world. They are tested through various studies, and as more evidence accumulates, they may be revised, refined, or replaced by alternative explanations.

It is important to note that scientific theories are not mere guesses or speculations. They are well-substantiated explanations that have demonstrated their reliability and predictive power through rigorous testing. An essential characteristic of scientific theories is their falsifiability, meaning that they can be potentially disproven or modified based on new evidence.

In summary, drawing conclusions and forming theories are critical aspects of scientific thinking . Researchers must be careful not to overstate their findings, recognizing that our understanding of the world is continuously evolving. As our body of knowledge grows and evidence accumulates, theories are developed, revised, or replaced, leading to a deeper and more accurate understanding of the world around us.

Role of Cognitive Biases and Points of View

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in human thinking and decision-making processes, which often do not comply with logic, probability reasoning, or plausibility. They play a significant role in how we process and interpret information, potentially leading to distorted perspectives and misconceptions. Understanding the influence of cognitive biases and points of view is crucial in scientific thinking, as it helps us to analyze information more critically and objectively.

For instance, the confirmation bias is a common cognitive bias where people tend to favor information that reinforces their existing beliefs. This may lead to a selective collection of data, ignoring evidence that contradicts one’s views. In scientific thinking, it is essential to be aware of this bias as it helps to reevaluate our beliefs and assumptions, ensuring that they are grounded in facts.

Another notable cognitive bias is the availability heuristic , which involves people basing their decisions on readily available information rather than considering all relevant data. Scientists should be mindful of such biases, as they might overlook crucial evidence due to its obscurity. Adopting an open-minded approach and considering all available data is a key component of scientific thinking.

Points of view also play a critical role in scientific thinking . Different scientists may have distinct perspectives on a problem, leading to diverse methodologies and interpretations of results. This diversity of perspectives can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon, increasing the robustness of scientific conclusions. However, it is also essential to examine these diverse viewpoints critically and objectively, considering the strengths and limitations of each argument.

In sum, being aware of cognitive biases and diverse points of view contributes greatly to scientific thinking. By acknowledging these elements, researchers can adopt a more objective and critical approach, ultimately leading to more accurate and reliable scientific conclusions.

Purpose and Importance of Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking is a crucial element in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding. Its core purpose is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the natural world and its phenomena through systematic observation, experimentation, and reasoning. With the help of induction, deduction, experimental design, and hypothesis testing , scientific thinking enables individuals to critically assess and interpret information, which can lead to new discoveries and theories.

The importance of scientific thinking cannot be overstated, as it serves as a foundation for scientific inquiry and innovation. By incorporating this skill set into our daily lives, we can foster a better understanding of the world around us and make informed decisions based on empirical evidence. Scientific thinking promotes clarity, precision, and logic, which are essential traits for effective problem-solving and decision-making in various fields, including business, medicine, and engineering.

One of the primary purposes of scientific thinking is to raise vital questions and challenges rooted in curiosity, ultimately expanding our knowledge base and worldview. This approach to thought encourages individuals to gather and assess relevant scientific data, using abstract ideas to interpret them effectively. As a result, scientific thinking fosters an environment of continuous learning and intellectual growth.

In essence, scientific thinking is more than just an approach to learning; it is a mindset that promotes a deep understanding of the world and its processes. Through critical analysis and systematic reasoning, individuals who engage in scientific thinking can draw meaningful conclusions from the available evidence, shaping our collective understanding of the universe. Furthermore, the skills cultivated through scientific thinking make it an indispensable aspect of personal and professional development, enhancing our ability to navigate the complexities of the modern world.

Adopting a confident, knowledgeable, neutral, and clear tone of voice, scientific thinking significantly contributes to the pursuit of knowledge and understanding. In an increasingly complex and interconnected world, harnessing the power of scientific thinking becomes ever more essential for progress, innovation, and unlocking the true potential of human ingenuity.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key components of scientific thinking.

Scientific thinking involves a set of cognitive skills and processes that enable individuals to reason, make decisions, and solve problems based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. Some essential components of scientific thinking include induction, deduction, experimental design, causal reasoning, concept formation, and hypothesis testing .

How do scientific thinking skills impact research?

Developing skills in scientific thinking directly impacts research quality by providing a comprehensive framework for analyzing data, generating hypotheses, and designing experiments. These skills allow researchers to critically evaluate their methods and results, ensuring that conclusions are based on valid and reliable evidence. Ultimately, this rigorous approach helps advance our understanding of the world by contributing to the development of new theories and solutions.

What are the main types of scientific thinking?

There are several types of scientific thinking that can be broadly categorized as: inductive reasoning, where generalizations are drawn from specific observations; deductive reasoning, where specific predictions are made based on general principles; abductive reasoning, where explanations are hypothesized for observed phenomena; and causal reasoning, which involves determining the cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

How can examples of scientific thinking be applied in everyday life?

Scientific thinking can be applied in various aspects of daily life , such as problem-solving, decision-making, and critical analysis. For instance, when troubleshooting a malfunctioning device, one could use the hypothetico-deductive method by formulating hypotheses and systematically testing them. Similarly, when deciding on a course of action, one could weigh the available evidence and assess the pros and cons of alternative options.

What is the role of scientific thinking in problem-solving?

Scientific thinking plays a crucial role in problem-solving by providing a systematic approach to gathering and evaluating evidence, formulating hypotheses, and deducing logical conclusions. This method permits individuals to break down complex problems into manageable components, identify potential solutions, and rigorously test the effectiveness of those solutions. Encouraging the use of scientific thinking in problem-solving also fosters critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity.

Which books and resources can help improve scientific thinking skills?

Several books and resources can help individuals develop and enhance their scientific thinking skills . Some recommendations include “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” by Thomas Kuhn, “Thinking, Fast and Slow” by Daniel Kahneman, “The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark” by Carl Sagan, and online courses such as Science Buddies’ Steps of the Scientific Method . By exploring these resources, individuals can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the principles and techniques that underpin scientific thinking .

• Scientific Thinking and Reasoning | The Oxford Handbook of Thinking and… ↩ ↩ 2 ↩ 3
• Nature of Scientific Thinking – Harvard University ↩ ↩ 2
• Introduction to Scientific Thinking – SAGE Publications Inc ↩ ↩ 2

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Scientific Thinking and Critical Thinking in Science Education 

Two Distinct but Symbiotically Related Intellectual Processes

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• Published: 05 September 2023

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• Antonio García-Carmona   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5952-0340 1  

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Scientific thinking and critical thinking are two intellectual processes that are considered keys in the basic and comprehensive education of citizens. For this reason, their development is also contemplated as among the main objectives of science education. However, in the literature about the two types of thinking in the context of science education, there are quite frequent allusions to one or the other indistinctly to refer to the same cognitive and metacognitive skills, usually leaving unclear what are their differences and what are their common aspects. The present work therefore was aimed at elucidating what the differences and relationships between these two types of thinking are. The conclusion reached was that, while they differ in regard to the purposes of their application and some skills or processes, they also share others and are related symbiotically in a metaphorical sense; i.e., each one makes sense or develops appropriately when it is nourished or enriched by the other. Finally, an orientative proposal is presented for an integrated development of the two types of thinking in science classes.

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Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think. Albert Einstein

1 Introduction

In consulting technical reports, theoretical frameworks, research, and curricular reforms related to science education, one commonly finds appeals to scientific thinking and critical thinking as essential educational processes or objectives. This is confirmed in some studies that include exhaustive reviews of the literature in this regard such as those of Bailin ( 2002 ), Costa et al. ( 2020 ), and Santos ( 2017 ) on critical thinking, and of Klarh et al. ( 2019 ) and Lehrer and Schauble ( 2006 ) on scientific thinking. However, conceptualizing and differentiating between both types of thinking based on the above-mentioned documents of science education are generally difficult. In many cases, they are referred to without defining them, or they are used interchangeably to represent virtually the same thing. Thus, for example, the document A Framework for K-12 Science Education points out that “Critical thinking is required, whether in developing and refining an idea (an explanation or design) or in conducting an investigation” (National Research Council (NRC), 2012 , p. 46). The same document also refers to scientific thinking when it suggests that basic scientific education should “provide students with opportunities for a range of scientific activities and scientific thinking , including, but not limited to inquiry and investigation, collection and analysis of evidence, logical reasoning, and communication and application of information” (NRC, 2012 , p. 251).

A few years earlier, the report Science Teaching in Schools in Europe: Policies and Research (European Commission/Eurydice, 2006 ) included the dimension “scientific thinking” as part of standardized national science tests in European countries. This dimension consisted of three basic abilities: (i) to solve problems formulated in theoretical terms , (ii) to frame a problem in scientific terms , and (iii) to formulate scientific hypotheses . In contrast, critical thinking was not even mentioned in such a report. However, in subsequent similar reports by the European Commission/Eurydice ( 2011 , 2022 ), there are some references to the fact that the development of critical thinking should be a basic objective of science teaching, although these reports do not define it at any point.

The ENCIENDE report on early-year science education in Spain also includes an explicit allusion to critical thinking among its recommendations: “Providing students with learning tools means helping them to develop critical thinking , to form their own opinions, to distinguish between knowledge founded on the evidence available at a certain moment (evidence which can change) and unfounded beliefs” (Confederation of Scientific Societies in Spain (COSCE), 2011 , p. 62). However, the report makes no explicit mention to scientific thinking. More recently, the document “ Enseñando ciencia con ciencia ” (Teaching science with science) (Couso et al., 2020 ), sponsored by Spain’s Ministry of Education, also addresses critical thinking:

(…) with the teaching approach through guided inquiry students learn scientific content, learn to do science (procedures), learn what science is and how it is built, and this (...) helps to develop critical thinking , that is, to question any statement that is not supported by evidence. (Couso et al., 2020 , p. 54)

On the other hand, in referring to what is practically the same thing, the European report Science Education for Responsible Citizenship speaks of scientific thinking when it establishes that one of the challenges of scientific education should be: “To promote a culture of scientific thinking and inspire citizens to use evidence-based reasoning for decision making” (European Commission, 2015 , p. 14). However, the Pisa 2024 Strategic Vision and Direction for Science report does not mention scientific thinking but does mention critical thinking in noting that “More generally, (students) should be able to recognize the limitations of scientific inquiry and apply critical thinking when engaging with its results” (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2020 , p. 9).

The new Spanish science curriculum for basic education (Royal Decree 217/ 2022 ) does make explicit reference to scientific thinking. For example, one of the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) competency descriptors for compulsory secondary education reads:

Use scientific thinking to understand and explain the phenomena that occur around them, trusting in knowledge as a motor for development, asking questions and checking hypotheses through experimentation and inquiry (...) showing a critical attitude about the scope and limitations of science. (p. 41,599)

Furthermore, when developing the curriculum for the subjects of physics and chemistry, the same provision clarifies that “The essence of scientific thinking is to understand what are the reasons for the phenomena that occur in the natural environment to then try to explain them through the appropriate laws of physics and chemistry” (Royal Decree 217/ 2022 , p. 41,659). However, within the science subjects (i.e., Biology and Geology, and Physics and Chemistry), critical thinking is not mentioned as such. Footnote 1 It is only more or less directly alluded to with such expressions as “critical analysis”, “critical assessment”, “critical reflection”, “critical attitude”, and “critical spirit”, with no attempt to conceptualize it as is done with regard to scientific thinking.

The above is just a small sample of the concepts of scientific thinking and critical thinking only being differentiated in some cases, while in others they are presented as interchangeable, using one or the other indistinctly to talk about the same cognitive/metacognitive processes or practices. In fairness, however, it has to be acknowledged—as said at the beginning—that it is far from easy to conceptualize these two types of thinking (Bailin, 2002 ; Dwyer et al., 2014 ; Ennis, 2018 ; Lehrer & Schauble, 2006 ; Kuhn, 1993 , 1999 ) since they feed back on each other, partially overlap, and share certain features (Cáceres et al., 2020 ; Vázquez-Alonso & Manassero-Mas, 2018 ). Neither is there unanimity in the literature on how to characterize each of them, and rarely have they been analyzed comparatively (e.g., Hyytinen et al., 2019 ). For these reasons, I believed it necessary to address this issue with the present work in order to offer some guidelines for science teachers interested in deepening into these two intellectual processes to promote them in their classes.

2 An Attempt to Delimit Scientific Thinking in Science Education

For many years, cognitive science has been interested in studying what scientific thinking is and how it can be taught in order to improve students’ science learning (Klarh et al., 2019 ; Zimmerman & Klarh, 2018 ). To this end, Kuhn et al. propose taking a characterization of science as argument (Kuhn, 1993 ; Kuhn et al., 2008 ). They argue that this is a suitable way of linking the activity of how scientists think with that of the students and of the public in general, since science is a social activity which is subject to ongoing debate, in which the construction of arguments plays a key role. Lehrer and Schauble ( 2006 ) link scientific thinking with scientific literacy, paying especial attention to the different images of science. According to those authors, these images would guide the development of the said literacy in class. The images of science that Leherer and Schauble highlight as characterizing scientific thinking are: (i) science-as-logical reasoning (role of domain-general forms of scientific reasoning, including formal logic, heuristic, and strategies applied in different fields of science), (ii) science-as-theory change (science is subject to permanent revision and change), and (iii) science-as-practice (scientific knowledge and reasoning are components of a larger set of activities that include rules of participation, procedural skills, epistemological knowledge, etc.).

Based on a literature review, Jirout ( 2020 ) defines scientific thinking as an intellectual process whose purpose is the intentional search for information about a phenomenon or facts by formulating questions, checking hypotheses, carrying out observations, recognizing patterns, and making inferences (a detailed description of all these scientific practices or competencies can be found, for example, in NRC, 2012 ; OECD, 2019 ). Therefore, for Jirout, the development of scientific thinking would involve bringing into play the basic science skills/practices common to the inquiry-based approach to learning science (García-Carmona, 2020 ; Harlen, 2014 ). For other authors, scientific thinking would include a whole spectrum of scientific reasoning competencies (Krell et al., 2022 ; Moore, 2019 ; Tytler & Peterson, 2004 ). However, these competences usually cover the same science skills/practices mentioned above. Indeed, a conceptual overlap between scientific thinking, scientific reasoning, and scientific inquiry is often found in science education goals (Krell et al., 2022 ). Although, according to Leherer and Schauble ( 2006 ), scientific thinking is a broader construct that encompasses the other two.

It could be said that scientific thinking is a particular way of searching for information using science practices Footnote 2 (Klarh et al., 2019 ; Zimmerman & Klarh, 2018 ; Vázquez-Alonso & Manassero-Mas, 2018 ). This intellectual process provides the individual with the ability to evaluate the robustness of evidence for or against a certain idea, in order to explain a phenomenon (Clouse, 2017 ). But the development of scientific thinking also requires metacognition processes. According to what Kuhn ( 2022 ) argues, metacognition is fundamental to the permanent control or revision of what an individual thinks and knows, as well as that of the other individuals with whom it interacts, when engaging in scientific practices. In short, scientific thinking demands a good connection between reasoning and metacognition (Kuhn, 2022 ). Footnote 3

From that perspective, Zimmerman and Klarh ( 2018 ) have synthesized a taxonomy categorizing scientific thinking, relating cognitive processes with the corresponding science practices (Table 1 ). It has to be noted that this taxonomy was prepared in line with the categorization of scientific practices proposed in the document A Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC, 2012 ). This is why one needs to understand that, for example, the cognitive process of elaboration and refinement of hypotheses is not explicitly associated with the scientific practice of hypothesizing but only with the formulation of questions. Indeed, the K-12 Framework document does not establish hypothesis formulation as a basic scientific practice. Lederman et al. ( 2014 ) justify it by arguing that not all scientific research necessarily allows or requires the verification of hypotheses, for example, in cases of exploratory or descriptive research. However, the aforementioned document (NRC, 2012 , p. 50) does refer to hypotheses when describing the practice of developing and using models , appealing to the fact that they facilitate the testing of hypothetical explanations .

In the literature, there are also other interesting taxonomies characterizing scientific thinking for educational purposes. One of them is that of Vázquez-Alonso and Manassero-Mas ( 2018 ) who, instead of science practices, refer to skills associated with scientific thinking . Their characterization basically consists of breaking down into greater detail the content of those science practices that would be related to the different cognitive and metacognitive processes of scientific thinking. Also, unlike Zimmerman and Klarh’s ( 2018 ) proposal, Vázquez-Alonso and Manassero-Mas’s ( 2018 ) proposal explicitly mentions metacognition as one of the aspects of scientific thinking, which they call meta-process . In my opinion, the proposal of the latter authors, which shells out scientific thinking into a broader range of skills/practices, can be more conducive in order to favor its approach in science classes, as teachers would have more options to choose from to address components of this intellectual process depending on their teaching interests, the educational needs of their students and/or the learning objectives pursued. Table 2 presents an adapted characterization of the Vázquez-Alonso and Manassero-Mas’s ( 2018 ) proposal to address scientific thinking in science education.

3 Contextualization of Critical Thinking in Science Education

Theorization and research about critical thinking also has a long tradition in the field of the psychology of learning (Ennis, 2018 ; Kuhn, 1999 ), and its application extends far beyond science education (Dwyer et al., 2014 ). Indeed, the development of critical thinking is commonly accepted as being an essential goal of people’s overall education (Ennis, 2018 ; Hitchcock, 2017 ; Kuhn, 1999 ; Willingham, 2008 ). However, its conceptualization is not simple and there is no unanimous position taken on it in the literature (Costa et al., 2020 ; Dwyer et al., 2014 ); especially when trying to relate it to scientific thinking. Thus, while Tena-Sánchez and León-Medina ( 2022 ) Footnote 4 and McBain et al. ( 2020 ) consider critical thinking to be the basis of or forms part of scientific thinking, Dowd et al. ( 2018 ) understand scientific thinking to be just a subset of critical thinking. However, Vázquez-Alonso and Manassero-Mas ( 2018 ) do not seek to determine whether critical thinking encompasses scientific thinking or vice versa. They consider that both types of knowledge share numerous skills/practices and the progressive development of one fosters the development of the other as a virtuous circle of improvement. Other authors, such as Schafersman ( 1991 ), even go so far as to say that critical thinking and scientific thinking are the same thing. In addition, some views on the relationship between critical thinking and scientific thinking seem to be context-dependent. For example, Hyytine et al. ( 2019 ) point out that in the perspective of scientific thinking as a component of critical thinking, the former is often used to designate evidence-based thinking in the sciences, although this view tends to dominate in Europe but not in the USA context. Perhaps because of this lack of consensus, the two types of thinking are often confused, overlapping, or conceived as interchangeable in education.

Even with such a lack of unanimous or consensus vision, there are some interesting theoretical frameworks and definitions for the development of critical thinking in education. One of the most popular definitions of critical thinking is that proposed by The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking (1987, cited in Inter-American Teacher Education Network, 2015 , p. 6). This conceives of it as “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action”. In other words, critical thinking can be regarded as a reflective and reasonable class of thinking that provides people with the ability to evaluate multiple statements or positions that are defensible to then decide which is the most defensible (Clouse, 2017 ; Ennis, 2018 ). It thus requires, in addition to a basic scientific competency, notions about epistemology (Kuhn, 1999 ) to understand how knowledge is constructed. Similarly, it requires skills for metacognition (Hyytine et al., 2019 ; Kuhn, 1999 ; Magno, 2010 ) since critical thinking “entails awareness of one’s own thinking and reflection on the thinking of self and others as objects of cognition” (Dean & Kuhn, 2003 , p. 3).

In science education, one of the most suitable scenarios or resources, but not the only one, Footnote 5 to address all these aspects of critical thinking is through the analysis of socioscientific issues (SSI) (Taylor et al., 2006 ; Zeidler & Nichols, 2009 ). Without wishing to expand on this here, I will only say that interesting works can be found in the literature that have analyzed how the discussion of SSIs can favor the development of critical thinking skills (see, e.g., López-Fernández et al., 2022 ; Solbes et al., 2018 ). For example, López-Fernández et al. ( 2022 ) focused their teaching-learning sequence on the following critical thinking skills: information analysis, argumentation, decision making, and communication of decisions. Even some authors add the nature of science (NOS) to this framework (i.e., SSI-NOS-critical thinking), as, for example, Yacoubian and Khishfe ( 2018 ) in order to develop critical thinking and how this can also favor the understanding of NOS (Yacoubian, 2020 ). In effect, as I argued in another work on the COVID-19 pandemic as an SSI, in which special emphasis was placed on critical thinking, an informed understanding of how science works would have helped the public understand why scientists were changing their criteria to face the pandemic in the light of new data and its reinterpretations, or that it was not possible to go faster to get an effective and secure medical treatment for the disease (García-Carmona, 2021b ).

In the recent literature, there have also been some proposals intended to characterize critical thinking in the context of science education. Table 3 presents two of these by way of example. As can be seen, both proposals share various components for the development of critical thinking (respect for evidence, critically analyzing/assessing the validity/reliability of information, adoption of independent opinions/decisions, participation, etc.), but that of Blanco et al. ( 2017 ) is more clearly contextualized in science education. Likewise, that of these authors includes some more aspects (or at least does so more explicitly), such as developing epistemological Footnote 6 knowledge of science (vision of science…) and on its interactions with technology, society, and environment (STSA relationships), and communication skills. Therefore, it offers a wider range of options for choosing critical thinking skills/processes to promote it in science classes. However, neither proposal refers to metacognitive skills, which are also essential for developing critical thinking (Kuhn, 1999 ).

3.1 Critical thinking vs. scientific thinking in science education: differences and similarities

In accordance with the above, it could be said that scientific thinking is nourished by critical thinking, especially when deciding between several possible interpretations and explanations of the same phenomenon since this generally takes place in a context of debate in the scientific community (Acevedo-Díaz & García-Carmona, 2017 ). Thus, the scientific attitude that is perhaps most clearly linked to critical thinking is the skepticism with which scientists tend to welcome new ideas (Normand, 2008 ; Sagan, 1987 ; Tena-Sánchez and León-Medina, 2022 ), especially if they are contrary to well-established scientific knowledge (Bell, 2009 ). A good example of this was the OPERA experiment (García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2016a ), which initially seemed to find that neutrinos could move faster than the speed of light. This finding was supposed to invalidate Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity (the finding was later proved wrong). In response, Nobel laureate in physics Sheldon L. Glashow went so far as to state that:

the result obtained by the OPERA collaboration cannot be correct. If it were, we would have to give up so many things, it would be such a huge sacrifice... But if it is, I am officially announcing it: I will shout to Mother Nature: I’m giving up! And I will give up Physics. (BBVA Foundation, 2011 )

Indeed, scientific thinking is ultimately focused on getting evidence that may support an idea or explanation about a phenomenon, and consequently allow others that are less convincing or precise to be discarded. Therefore when, with the evidence available, science has more than one equally defensible position with respect to a problem, the investigation is considered inconclusive (Clouse, 2017 ). In certain cases, this gives rise to scientific controversies (Acevedo-Díaz & García-Carmona, 2017 ) which are not always resolved based exclusively on epistemic or rational factors (Elliott & McKaughan, 2014 ; Vallverdú, 2005 ). Hence, it is also necessary to integrate non-epistemic practices into the framework of scientific thinking (García-Carmona, 2021a ; García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2018 ), practices that transcend the purely rational or cognitive processes, including, for example, those related to emotional or affective issues (Sinatra & Hofer, 2021 ). From an educational point of view, this suggests that for students to become more authentically immersed in the way of working or thinking scientifically, they should also learn to feel as scientists do when they carry out their work (Davidson et al., 2020 ). Davidson et al. ( 2020 ) call it epistemic affect , and they suggest that it could be approach in science classes by teaching students to manage their frustrations when they fail to achieve the expected results; Footnote 7 or, for example, to moderate their enthusiasm with favorable results in a scientific inquiry by activating a certain skepticism that encourages them to do more testing. And, as mentioned above, for some authors, having a skeptical attitude is one of the actions that best visualize the application of critical thinking in the framework of scientific thinking (Normand, 2008 ; Sagan, 1987 ; Tena-Sánchez and León-Medina, 2022 ).

On the other hand, critical thinking also draws on many of the skills or practices of scientific thinking, as discussed above. However, in contrast to scientific thinking, the coexistence of two or more defensible ideas is not, in principle, a problem for critical thinking since its purpose is not so much to invalidate some ideas or explanations with respect to others, but rather to provide the individual with the foundations on which to position themself with the idea/argument they find most defensible among several that are possible (Ennis, 2018 ). For example, science with its methods has managed to explain the greenhouse effect, the phenomenon of the tides, or the transmission mechanism of the coronavirus. For this, it had to discard other possible explanations as they were less valid in the investigations carried out. These are therefore issues resolved by the scientific community which create hardly any discussion at the present time. However, taking a position for or against the production of energy in nuclear power plants transcends the scope of scientific thinking since both positions are, in principle, equally defensible. Indeed, within the scientific community itself there are supporters and detractors of the two positions, based on the same scientific knowledge. Consequently, it is critical thinking, which requires the management of knowledge and scientific skills, a basic understanding of epistemic (rational or cognitive) and non-epistemic (social, ethical/moral, economic, psychological, cultural, ...) aspects of the nature of science, as well as metacognitive skills, which helps the individual forge a personal foundation on which to position themself in one place or another, or maintain an uncertain, undecided opinion.

In view of the above, one can summarize that scientific thinking and critical thinking are two different intellectual processes in terms of purpose, but are related symbiotically (i.e., one would make no sense without the other or both feed on each other) and that, in their performance, they share a fair number of features, actions, or mental skills. According to Cáceres et al. ( 2020 ) and Hyytine et al. ( 2019 ), the intellectual skills that are most clearly common to both types of thinking would be searching for relationships between evidence and explanations , as well as investigating and logical thinking to make inferences . To this common space, I would also add skills for metacognition in accordance with what has been discussed about both types of knowledge (Khun, 1999 , 2022 ).

In order to compile in a compact way all that has been argued so far, in Table 4 , I present my overview of the relationship between scientific thinking and critical thinking. I would like to point out that I do not intend to be extremely extensive in the compilation, in the sense that possibly more elements could be added in the different sections, but rather to represent above all the aspects that distinguish and share them, as well as the mutual enrichment (or symbiosis) between them.

4 A Proposal for the Integrated Development of Critical Thinking and Scientific Thinking in Science Classes

Once the differences, common aspects, and relationships between critical thinking and scientific thinking have been discussed, it would be relevant to establish some type of specific proposal to foster them in science classes. Table 5 includes a possible script to address various skills or processes of both types of thinking in an integrated manner. However, before giving guidance on how such skills/processes could be approached, I would like to clarify that while all of them could be dealt within the context of a single school activity, I will not do so in this way. First, because I think that it can give the impression that the proposal is only valid if it is applied all at once in a specific learning situation, which can also discourage science teachers from implementing it in class due to lack of time or training to do so. Second, I think it can be more interesting to conceive the proposal as a set of thinking skills or actions that can be dealt with throughout the different science contents, selecting only (if so decided) some of them, according to educational needs or characteristics of the learning situation posed in each case. Therefore, in the orientations for each point of the script or grouping of these, I will use different examples and/or contexts. Likewise, these orientations in the form of comments, although founded in the literature, should be considered only as possibilities to do so, among many others possible.

Motivation and predisposition to reflect and discuss (point i ) demands, on the one hand, that issues are chosen which are attractive for the students. This can be achieved, for example, by asking the students directly what current issues, related to science and its impact or repercussions, they would like to learn about, and then decide on which issue to focus on (García-Carmona, 2008 ). Or the teacher puts forward the issue directly in class, trying for it be current, to be present in the media, social networks, etc., or what they think may be of interest to their students based on their teaching experience. In this way, each student is encouraged to feel questioned or concerned as a citizen because of the issue that is going to be addressed (García-Carmona, 2008 ). Also of possible interest is the analysis of contemporary, as yet unresolved socioscientific affairs (Solbes et al., 2018 ), such as climate change, science and social justice, transgenic foods, homeopathy, and alcohol and drug use in society. But also, everyday questions can be investigated which demand a decision to be made, such as “What car to buy?” (Moreno-Fontiveros et al., 2022 ), or “How can we prevent the arrival of another pandemic?” (Ushola & Puig, 2023 ).

On the other hand, it is essential that the discussion about the chosen issue is planned through an instructional process that generates an environment conducive to reflection and debate, with a view to engaging the students’ participation in it. This can be achieved, for example, by setting up a role-play game (Blanco-López et al., 2017 ), especially if the issue is socioscientific, or by critical and reflective reading of advertisements with scientific content (Campanario et al., 2001 ) or of science-related news in the daily media (García-Carmona, 2014 , 2021a ; Guerrero-Márquez & García-Carmona, 2020 ; Oliveras et al., 2013 ), etc., for subsequent discussion—all this, in a collaborative learning setting and with a clear democratic spirit.

Respect for scientific evidence (point ii ) should be the indispensable condition in any analysis and discussion from the prisms of scientific and of critical thinking (Erduran, 2021 ). Although scientific knowledge may be impregnated with subjectivity during its construction and is revisable in the light of new evidence ( tentativeness of scientific knowledge), when it is accepted by the scientific community it is as objective as possible (García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2016b ). Therefore, promoting trust and respect for scientific evidence should be one of the primary educational challenges to combating pseudoscientists and science deniers (Díaz & Cabrera, 2022 ), whose arguments are based on false beliefs and assumptions, anecdotes, and conspiracy theories (Normand, 2008 ). Nevertheless, it is no simple task to achieve the promotion or respect for scientific evidence (Fackler, 2021 ) since science deniers, for example, consider that science is unreliable because it is imperfect (McIntyre, 2021 ). Hence the need to promote a basic understanding of NOS (point iii ) as a fundamental pillar for the development of both scientific thinking and critical thinking. A good way to do this would be through explicit and reflective discussion about controversies from the history of science (Acevedo-Díaz & García-Carmona, 2017 ) or contemporary controversies (García-Carmona, 2021b ; García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2016a ).

Also, with respect to point iii of the proposal, it is necessary to manage basic scientific knowledge in the development of scientific and critical thinking skills (Willingham, 2008 ). Without this, it will be impossible to develop a minimally serious and convincing argument on the issue being analyzed. For example, if one does not know the transmission mechanism of a certain disease, it is likely to be very difficult to understand or justify certain patterns of social behavior when faced with it. In general, possessing appropriate scientific knowledge on the issue in question helps to make the best interpretation of the data and evidence available on this issue (OECD, 2019 ).

The search for information from reliable sources, together with its analysis and interpretation (points iv to vi ), are essential practices both in purely scientific contexts (e.g., learning about the behavior of a given physical phenomenon from literature or through enquiry) and in the application of critical thinking (e.g., when one wishes to take a personal, but informed, position on a particular socio-scientific issue). With regard to determining the credibility of information with scientific content on the Internet, Osborne et al. ( 2022 ) propose, among other strategies, to check whether the source is free of conflicts of interest, i.e., whether or not it is biased by ideological, political or economic motives. Also, it should be checked whether the source and the author(s) of the information are sufficiently reputable.

Regarding the interpretation of data and evidence, several studies have shown the difficulties that students often have with this practice in the context of enquiry activities (e.g., Gobert et al., 2018 ; Kanari & Millar, 2004 ; Pols et al., 2021 ), or when analyzing science news in the press (Norris et al., 2003 ). It is also found that they have significant difficulties in choosing the most appropriate data to support their arguments in causal analyses (Kuhn & Modrek, 2022 ). However, it must be recognized that making interpretations or inferences from data is not a simple task; among other reasons, because their construction is influenced by multiple factors, both epistemic (prior knowledge, experimental designs, etc.) and non-epistemic (personal expectations, ideology, sociopolitical context, etc.), which means that such interpretations are not always the same for all scientists (García-Carmona, 2021a ; García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2018 ). For this reason, the performance of this scientific practice constitutes one of the phases or processes that generate the most debate or discussion in a scientific community, as long as no consensus is reached. In order to improve the practice of making inferences among students, Kuhn and Lerman ( 2021 ) propose activities that help them develop their own epistemological norms to connect causally their statements with the available evidence.

Point vii refers, on the one hand, to an essential scientific practice: the elaboration of evidence-based scientific explanations which generally, in a reasoned way, account for the causality, properties, and/or behavior of the phenomena (Brigandt, 2016 ). In addition, point vii concerns the practice of argumentation . Unlike scientific explanations, argumentation tries to justify an idea, explanation, or position with the clear purpose of persuading those who defend other different ones (Osborne & Patterson, 2011 ). As noted above, the complexity of most socioscientific issues implies that they have no unique valid solution or response. Therefore, the content of the arguments used to defend one position or another are not always based solely on purely rational factors such as data and scientific evidence. Some authors defend the need to also deal with non-epistemic aspects of the nature of science when teaching it (García-Carmona, 2021a ; García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2018 ) since many scientific and socioscientific controversies are resolved by different factors or go beyond just the epistemic (Vallverdú, 2005 ).

To defend an idea or position taken on an issue, it is not enough to have scientific evidence that supports it. It is also essential to have skills for the communication and discussion of ideas (point viii ). The history of science shows how the difficulties some scientists had in communicating their ideas scientifically led to those ideas not being accepted at the time. A good example for students to become aware of this is the historical case of Semmelweis and puerperal fever (Aragón-Méndez et al., 2019 ). Its reflective reading makes it possible to conclude that the proposal of this doctor that gynecologists disinfect their hands, when passing from one parturient to another to avoid contagions that provoked the fever, was rejected by the medical community not only for epistemic reasons, but also for the difficulties that he had to communicate his idea. The history of science also reveals that some scientific interpretations were imposed on others at certain historical moments due to the rhetorical skills of their proponents although none of the explanations would convincingly explain the phenomenon studied. An example is the case of the controversy between Pasteur and Liebig about the phenomenon of fermentation (García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2017 ), whose reading and discussion in science class would also be recommended in this context of this critical and scientific thinking skill. With the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, the arguments of some charlatans in the media and on social networks managed to gain a certain influence in the population, even though scientifically they were muddled nonsense (García-Carmona, 2021b ). Therefore, the reflective reading of news on current SSIs such as this also constitutes a good resource for the same educational purpose. In general, according to Spektor-Levy et al. ( 2009 ), scientific communication skills should be addressed explicitly in class, in a progressive and continuous manner, including tasks of information seeking, reading, scientific writing, representation of information, and representation of the knowledge acquired.

Finally (point ix ), a good scientific/critical thinker must be aware of what they know, of what they have doubts about or do not know, to this end continuously practicing metacognitive exercises (Dean & Kuhn, 2003 ; Hyytine et al., 2019 ; Magno, 2010 ; Willingham, 2008 ). At the same time, they must recognize the weaknesses and strengths of the arguments of their peers in the debate in order to be self-critical if necessary, as well as to revising their own ideas and arguments to improve and reorient them, etc. ( self-regulation ). I see one of the keys of both scientific and critical thinking being the capacity or willingness to change one’s mind, without it being frowned upon. Indeed, quite the opposite since one assumes it to occur thanks to the arguments being enriched and more solidly founded. In other words, scientific and critical thinking and arrogance or haughtiness towards the rectification of ideas or opinions do not stick well together.

5 Final Remarks

For decades, scientific thinking and critical thinking have received particular attention from different disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, pedagogy, and specific areas of this last such as science education. The two types of knowledge represent intellectual processes whose development in students, and in society in general, is considered indispensable for the exercise of responsible citizenship in accord with the demands of today’s society (European Commission, 2006 , 2015 ; NRC, 2012 ; OECD, 2020 ). As has been shown however, the task of their conceptualization is complex, and teaching students to think scientifically and critically is a difficult educational challenge (Willingham, 2008 ).

Aware of this, and after many years dedicated to science education, I felt the need to organize my ideas regarding the aforementioned two types of thinking. In consulting the literature about these, I found that, in many publications, scientific thinking and critical thinking are presented or perceived as being interchangeable or indistinguishable; a conclusion also shared by Hyytine et al. ( 2019 ). Rarely have their differences, relationships, or common features been explicitly studied. So, I considered that it was a matter needing to be addressed because, in science education, the development of scientific thinking is an inherent objective, but, when critical thinking is added to the learning objectives, there arise more than reasonable doubts about when one or the other would be used, or both at the same time. The present work came about motivated by this, with the intention of making a particular contribution, but based on the relevant literature, to advance in the question raised. This converges in conceiving scientific thinking and critical thinking as two intellectual processes that overlap and feed into each other in many aspects but are different with respect to certain cognitive skills and in terms of their purpose. Thus, in the case of scientific thinking, the aim is to choose the best possible explanation of a phenomenon based on the available evidence, and it therefore involves the rejection of alternative explanatory proposals that are shown to be less coherent or convincing. Whereas, from the perspective of critical thinking, the purpose is to choose the most defensible idea/option among others that are also defensible, using both scientific and extra-scientific (i.e., moral, ethical, political, etc.) arguments. With this in mind, I have described a proposal to guide their development in the classroom, integrating them under a conception that I have called, metaphorically, a symbiotic relationship between two modes of thinking.

Critical thinking is mentioned literally in other of the curricular provisions’ subjects such as in Education in Civics and Ethical Values or in Geography and History (Royal Decree 217/2022).

García-Carmona ( 2021a ) conceives of them as activities that require the comprehensive application of procedural skills, cognitive and metacognitive processes, and both scientific knowledge and knowledge of the nature of scientific practice .

Kuhn ( 2021 ) argues that the relationship between scientific reasoning and metacognition is especially fostered by what she calls inhibitory control , which basically consists of breaking down the whole of a thought into parts in such a way that attention is inhibited on some of those parts to allow a focused examination of the intended mental content.

Specifically, Tena-Sánchez and León-Medina (2020) assume that critical thinking is at the basis of rational or scientific skepticism that leads to questioning any claim that does not have empirical support.

As discussed in the introduction, the inquiry-based approach is also considered conducive to addressing critical thinking in science education (Couso et al., 2020 ; NRC, 2012 ).

Epistemic skills should not be confused with epistemological knowledge (García-Carmona, 2021a ). The former refers to skills to construct, evaluate, and use knowledge, and the latter to understanding about the origin, nature, scope, and limits of scientific knowledge.

For this purpose, it can be very useful to address in class, with the help of the history and philosophy of science, that scientists get more wrong than right in their research, and that error is always an opportunity to learn (García-Carmona & Acevedo-Díaz, 2018 ).

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How to use scientific thinking to demystify complexity

Transforming assumptions into solutions, using data and evidence

Written by Working Voices • 9 February 2023

Future Skills

Scientific thinking is a secret card up your sleeve, it worked for Einstein, Curie and Hawking, and it can help you too. You don’t have to be a scientist but sometimes it helps to think like one. How do scientists think? By making an assumption, testing it against data and evidence, updating their opinion and coming to a conclusion. A cornerstone of future skills , scientific thinking is about thoughtful decision-making, it’s a step-by-step process and it’s easy to learn. 

What is scientific thinking?

Scientific thinking is the ability – or actually the habit – of thinking like a scientist. It’s what distinguishes the genuine expert on any subject from someone with only a shallow familiarity based on a couple of data points and some jargon.

Flawed assumptions made too quickly can have long-lasting effects. It’s important to keep an open mind so that when you find new data you can revise your assumption. This process of updating your beliefs based on new information is key to scientific thinking. Conclusions supported by evidence lead to rational decisions that encourage other people to trust your opinion. Scientific thinking strengthens your credibility, trustworthiness, and authority.

Deanna Kuhn, of the Teachers College at Columbia University, connects scientific thinking to argumentative thinking , where evidence is relied on in persuading others of the validity of your argument.

Kuhn defines scientific thinking as a “specific reasoning strategy”, in other words purposeful thinking that can be best thought of as “knowledge seeking”. It’s not about science itself, or even scientific aptitude. Scientific thinking is something people do , not something they have . It relies on the kind of rigorous, evidence-based thinking that is essential to science, but not specific to it. For these reasons, scientific thinking is engaged in by most people rather than a rarefied few.

Key elements of scientific thinking

Sometimes, you can face a situation that might seem like a rush of complexity and frenzy. For example – your sales may show an unexpected dip that can’t be immediately explained. Early assumptions might point to a downturn in internal performance, but perhaps there’s more to it than that. To manage complexity, it helps to build solid points of understanding, each refining your assumption and leading you through the problem, like stepping-stones across a river.

Stepping from one point to the next, you start with an assumption, then challenge this with early information. This helps you revise your assumption. Additional data takes you a step further – transforming your assumption into a stronger conclusion. Getting through complexity by taking one careful step at a time is a better bet than leaping to a wobbly assumption that might strand you in deep water.

Scientific thinking skills

Astronomer Moiya McTier offers three simple steps, which we’ve paraphrased here:

1) Learn to distinguish between observables and assumptions

The brain uses automatic assumptions (heuristics) to get from observation to action as quickly as possible. When we look out of the window and see blue sky and sunshine, we assume it’s warm. On questioning this assumption, by stepping outside, we actually find it’s cold. That’s why in business we need to verify our natural assumptions: Do you know the client is happy with your product, or are you assuming so based on their buying record? Avoid mistakes, by asking good questions.

2) Be guided by your questions, rather than your task

Scientists take things slowly, only moving to the next step when they’re sure of the last. The rest of us tend to gallop towards achieving the task. If the numbers are down on last year, and the task is to improve them, then maybe we need to sell more products? Better, however, to ask questions each step of the way. Why were the numbers down? Let’s answer that before racing towards a remedy.

3) For every question, create a working hypothesis

Having focused on a question, how will you know when you’ve answered it? Scientists form assumptions (hypotheses), giving them a direction to go in. If their findings match their hypothesis, they’re on the right track. If not, they need to revise their ideas, and ask new questions. In everyday life, we also use hypotheses all the time, but rarely voice them. They lie hidden in a lot of discussions. For example, someone asserts that sales are up 20% but profits only up 5%, indicating that we need to cut costs. Maybe. But the hidden hypothesis is that the disappointing profitability is caused by inefficiency. It may be. Or maybe the increased sales are of products with a lower profit margin. In that case, the problem – if there is one – is more complex.  Finding efficiencies might be the way forward but it’s not the whole story.

Scientific thinking examples

Beware – the brain craves clarity and will try to interpret something as 100% likely or 0% likely. And in the same way, it rather primitively divides scenarios into two groups: complex = no meaningful action possible; simple = let’s fix it now! We are biased to seek out simplistic explanations that open the gates to action. This urge is best restrained by asking more questions and reshaping your hypothesis. By rigorously and accurately finding causes, you’re more likely to adopt appropriate reactions.

Being cautious is less fun than getting excited about a promising idea. So we can be too quick to latch on to something that sounds good. Likewise, we can be too slow to let go of what we’re attached to. When new evidence contradicts existing beliefs, a defensive reaction is triggered in the brain. Think of it like an immune system: the brain rejects and attacks information that would disrupt our model of the world.

In the example earlier, the concerns about sales led to early assumptions about internal performance. If however the data shows that your sales team are meeting KPIs, the problem may need more investigation. New evidence may point to the fact that clients’ budgets are shrinking in the face of uncertain economic data.

The objective of a scientific approach is to develop interpretations of information that are accurate enough for leaders to rely on when deciding on a course of action. Pursuing the process in search of definitive proof is likely to be an impossible task, nor is it necessary. Instead, what leaders principally need is reasonable grounds for action.

Types of scientific thinking

We’ve seen that scientific thinking is a useful skill in managing specific complex questions. Once mastered as a habit however, scientific thinking can continuously play a background role in helping us manage routine aspects of daily life.

In particular, the deluge of content and data we experience in our digital lives, at home and at work, can be overwhelming. It’s deliberately attention-grabbing, seeking to persuade us to buy into its messaging, often literally.

Similarly, in the relentless pace of modern work, decisions are made at full tilt with the picture changing in real time. An ability to swiftly assess the evidence, data and analysis we’re served up is pivotal.

We don’t always have the time and space needed to step back and think, but going with the flow leaves us open to influence. Did you know, for example, that when Facebook switched its message alert (the tiny circle at the corner of the icon that tells you how many messages are waiting for you) from blue to red, engagement rocketed: the colour change triggered a decision to check the messages?

Marketing, media and PR professionals know how to influence our thoughts and behaviour in a thousand tiny ways. And every designer of websites and pitch books uses multiple micro-prompts to smooth the reader’s path towards a decision.

Even if you are not in those influencing professions, you yourself probably do your best to use those methods. The reports and presentations you put together are designed to persuade – not just inform. It would be a great compliment to be told that you’d delivered a ‘compelling’ presentation, but let’s stop and think what that means: to ‘compel’ is to force, to give someone no choice but to believe.

So, there is a lot more compelling data around than there used to be and to resist its appeal – and keep as objective as possible – we need to activate our critical faculties. That’s what scientific thinking can do for us.

How to develop scientific thinking?

With practice. The first few times we put the brakes on, step back, and review our thinking process, it will feel ponderous and pedantic. After all, the way we were thinking was probably fine; our intuition about the solution was probably as good as any other problem-solving process. But once scientific thinking becomes habitual, we can do it on the run, which is how we have to do most things these days.

At Working Voices, our range of courses in future skills will help you keep a competitive edge in the uncertain years ahead. In particular, our course on scientific thinking focuses on keeping an open mind in using new data to revise early assumptions. We don’t all need to be scientists. But by habitually relying on the ability to revise interpretations, we can make the informed decisions that will demystify complexity and give us a direction to go in.

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. These skills are especially helpful at school and in the workplace, where employers prioritize the ability to think critically. Find out why and see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

How to Demonstrate Critical Thinking in a Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your work history, include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your resume summary, if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand skills in mind as you refine your critical thinking practice —whether for work or school.

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of classmates or colleagues. You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

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