examples of historical analysis research

Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Original Research – Definition, Examples, Guide

Documentary Research – Types, Methods and...

Scientific Research – Types, Purpose and Guide

Artistic Research – Methods, Types and Examples

Humanities Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

2 What is Historical Analysis?

The principal goal of students in history classes and historians in practice is to master the process of Historical Analysis . History is more than a narrative of the past; the discipline cares less for the who, what, where, and when of an event, instead focusing on how and why certain events unfolded the way they did and what it all means. History is about argument, interpretation, and consequence. To complete quality historical analysis—that is, to “do history right”–one must use appropriate evidence, assess it properly (which involves comprehending how it is related to the situation in question), and then draw appropriate and meaningful conclusions based on said evidence.

The tools we use to analyze the past are a learned skill-set. While it is likely that the history you enjoy reading appears to be centered on a clear and direct narrative of past events, creating that story is more difficult than you might imagine. Writing history requires making informed judgments; we must read primary sources correctly, and then decide how to weigh the inevitable conflicts between those sources correctly. Think for a moment about a controversial moment in your own life—a traffic accident perhaps or a rupture between friends. Didn’t the various sources who experienced it—both sides, witnesses, the authorities—report on it differently? But when you recounted the story of what happened to others, you told a seamless story, which—whether you were conscience of it or not—required deciding whose report, or which discrete points from different reports—made the most sense. Even the decision to leave one particular turning point vague (“it’s a he said/she said unknowable point”) reflects the sort of judgment your listeners expect from you.

We use this same judgment when we use primary sources to write history; though in our case there are rules, or at least guidelines, about making those decisions. (For precise directions about reading primary sources, see the sections on “ Reading Primary Sources ” in the next chapter). In order to weigh the value of one source against other sources, we must be as informed as possible about that source’s historical context, the outlook of the source’s creator, and the circumstances of its creation. Indeed, as they attempt to uncover what happened, historians must learn about those circumstances and then be able to evaluate their impact on what the source reveals. Each actor in a historical moment brings their own cultural biases and preconceived expectations, and those biases are integral to the sources they leave behind. It is up to the historian to weave these differences together in their analysis in a way that is meaningful to readers. They must compare differences in ideologies, values, behaviors and traditions, as well as take in a multiplicity of perspectives, to create one story.

In addition to knowing how to treat their sources, historians and history students alike must tell a story worth telling, one that helps us as a society to understand who we are and how we got here. As humans, we want to know what caused a particular outcome, or perhaps whether a past actor or event is as similar to a present-day actor or event as it seems, or where the beginnings of a current movement began. (“What made Martin Luther King, Jr. a leader, when other activists had failed before him?” “Were reactions to the Civil Rights Movement similar to those of the current Black Lives Matter movement?” “How similar is the Coronavirus pandemic to the 1918 flu pandemic?” “Who were the first feminists and what did they believe?”) Even small aspects of larger events can help answer important questions. (“How did the suffrage movement (or Mothers Against Drunk Drivers, or the gun rights movement, or …) play out in my Texas hometown?”)

The very essence of historical analysis is about analyzing the different cause-and-effect relationships present in each scenario, considering the ways individuals, influential ideas, and different mindsets interact and affect one another. It is about figuring out what facts go together to form a coherent story, one that helps us understand ourselves and each other better. But such understandings, or indeed what exactly counts as “coherent,” can change with each generation. That’s where you and your interests as a student of history come in. Of key importance to the discipline is that our analysis of an event or individual is tentative or impermanent. The job of historians is to study the available evidence and construct meaningful conclusions; therefore, when new evidence and perspectives (including yours!) present themselves it may very well alter our understanding of the past.

As the section on historiography pointed out, a significant part of historical analysis is integrating new understandings of past events and actors with history as it already written. We don’t want to “reinvent the wheel” or simply retell the same story, using the same sources. Even as scholars provide new perspectives or uncover new evidence, revising what was thought to be known, they cannot simply ignore previous historical writing. Instead they need to address it, linking their new understanding to old scholarship as a part of building knowledge. Sometimes the linkage is a direct challenge to past explanations, but more likely new historical writing provides a nuance to the older work. For example, a scholar might look at new evidence to suggest a shift in periodization (“actually the rightward shift in the Republican Party began much earlier than Ronald Reagan’s campaigns”) or the importance of different actors (“middle-class Black women were more critical in the spreading of Progressive reforms in the South than we once thought”). Because historians are concerned with building knowledge and expanding scholarship, they choose their subjects of research with an eye toward adding to what we know, perhaps by developing new perspectives on old sources or by finding new sources.

For another view on historical thinking, this one offered by the American Historical Association, see “What does it mean to think historically?”

an examination of the past which focuses on why certain events unfolded the way they did and what significance it had

How History is Made: A Student’s Guide to Reading, Writing, and Thinking in the Discipline Copyright © 2022 by Stephanie Cole; Kimberly Breuer; Scott W. Palmer; and Brandon Blakeslee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

school Campus Bookshelves
menu_book Bookshelves
perm_media Learning Objects
login Login
how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

Download Page (PDF)
Download Full Book (PDF)
Periodic Table
Physics Constants
Scientific Calculator
Reference & Cite
Tools expand_more
Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

1.2: What is Historical Analysis?

Last updated
Save as PDF
Page ID 174463

Stephanie Cole, Kimberly Breuer, Scott W. Palmer, and Brandon Blakeslee

Stephanie Cole, Kimberly Breuer, Scott W. Palmer, and Brandon Blakeslee
University of Texas at Arlington via Mavs Open Press

$ \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } $

$ \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} $

$ \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$ $ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) $ \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$ $ \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$ \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$ $ \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$ \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}$

$ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$

$ \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}$

$ \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}$

$ \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}$

$ \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}$

$ \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}$

$ \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}$

$ \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}$ $ \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}$

$ \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow$

$ \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow$

$ \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } $

$ \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} $

$ \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} $

We use this same judgment when we use primary sources to write history; though in our case there are rules, or at least guidelines, about making those decisions. (For precise directions about reading primary sources, see the sections on “Reading Primary Sources” in the next chapter). In order to weigh the value of one source against other sources, we must be as informed as possible about that source’s historical context, the outlook of the source’s creator, and the circumstances of its creation. Indeed, as they attempt to uncover what happened, historians must learn about those circumstances and then be able to evaluate their impact on what the source reveals. Each actor in a historical moment brings their own cultural biases and preconceived expectations, and those biases are integral to the sources they leave behind. It is up to the historian to weave these differences together in their analysis in a way that is meaningful to readers. They must compare differences in ideologies, values, behaviors and traditions, as well as take in a multiplicity of perspectives, to create one story.

For another view on historical thinking, this one offered by the American Historical Association, see “What does it mean to think historically?”

University of Wisconsin–Madison
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Research Guides
Introduction to Historical Research

Introduction to Historical Research : Home

Archival sources
Multimedia sources
Newspapers and other periodicals
Biographical Information
Government documents

Subject-Specialist Librarians

There are librarians on campus that can help you with your specific area of research.

Subject Librarian Directory Subject-specialist/ liaison librarians are willing to help you with anything from coming up with research strategies to locating sources.

Ask a Librarian

or click for more options ...

This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research. It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

Next: Books >>
Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 12:48 PM
URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/introhist

Historical Research Approaches to the Analysis of Internationalisation

Research Article
Open access
Published: 29 September 2016
Volume 56 , pages 879–900, ( 2016 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

examples of historical analysis research

Peter J. Buckley 1

136k Accesses

51 Citations

1 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Historical research methods and approaches can improve understanding of the most appropriate techniques to confront data and test theories in internationalisation research. A critical analysis of all “texts” (sources), time series analyses, comparative methods across time periods and space, counterfactual analysis and the examination of outliers are shown to have the potential to improve research practices. Examples and applications are shown in these key areas of research with special reference to internationalisation processes. Examination of these methods allows us to see internationalisation processes as a sequenced set of decisions in time and space, path dependent to some extent but subject to managerial discretion. Internationalisation process research can benefit from the use of historical research methods in analysis of sources, production of time-lines, using comparative evidence across time and space and in the examination of feasible alternative choices.

Developing theoretically informed typologies in international business: Why we need them, and how to do it

Bridging History and Reductionism: A Key Role for Longitudinal Qualitative Research

Asynchronicities of growth: a process extension to the Uppsala model of internationalisation

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The title of this focused issue is ‘About Time: Putting Process Back into Firm Internationalisation Research’. It would therefore seem obvious that historical research methods, whose primary concern is the role of time, would be at the forefront of the analysis. This is not necessarily the case, as these methods are neglected in internationalisation research, and in international business more generally. Historians face many of the same research problems that business researchers do—notably questions related to the analysis of process—but they have produced different answers, particularly in relation to the nature of causation. As a field, international business researchers need to question our research approaches more deeply.

This paper seeks to examine the types of research approaches from history that might aid in a more rounded analysis of internationalisation. Issues of sequencing, path dependence, contingent choices and the evaluation of alternatives are all critical in the internationalisation process and are grist to the mill of historical research. An examination of historical research methods leads to a new approach to the concept of internationalisation itself.

1.1 Historical Research Approaches: The Challenge of Different Underlying Philosophies

It is the difference in underlying philosophy between history and social science that presents the keenest challenge in integrating the temporal dimension with international business research. The contrast between the philosophy underlying history and that of social science—an issue for over a century (e.g., Simiand 1903 )—is put by Isaiah Berlin:

History details the differences among events, whereas the sciences focus on similarities. History lacks the sciences’ ideal models, whose usefulness varies inversely with the number of characteristics to which they apply. As an external observer the scientist willingly distorts the individual to make it an instance of the general, but the historian, himself an actor, renounces interest in the general in order to understand the past through the projection of his own experience upon it. It is the scientist’s business to fit the facts to the theory, the historian’s responsibility to place his confidence in facts over theories (Berlin 1960 , p. 1 (Abstract). Footnote 1

Gaddis ( 2002 ) suggests that a particular contrast between history and social science is that history insists on the interdependence of variables, whilst mainstream social science methods rely on identifying the ‘independent variable’ which affects (causes) changes in dependent variables (Gaddis 2002 , particularly Chapter 4). He suggests that this parallels the distinction between a reductionist view and an ecological approach ( 2002 , p. 54), and that this arises from the social scientists’ desire to forecast the future ( 2002 , p. 56). This also implies continuity over time—the independent variable persists in its causative effect(s). It is also connected with assumptions of rationality, which also is assumed to be time-invariant. Social scientists would counter that historians are theory resistant, at least to the kind of independent variable/rationalist/context-invariant reductionist theory that (perhaps stereotypically) characterises economistic approaches.

Compromises are possible. Recognising sensitive dependence on initial conditions brings ‘narrative’ and ‘analysis’ much closer together, as does dividing time into manageable units—perhaps ‘short-term and long term’ or ‘immediate, intermediate and distant’ (Gaddis 2002 , p. 95). Causality, interdependence, contingency and moderating variables are more manageable when the time-frame is defined. Research in history therefore demonstrates the importance of time, sequencing and process. It also highlights the role of individuals and their decision making. These elements are particularly important in examining entrepreneurship and individual (manager’s) decisions and their outcome in contexts such as the internationalisation of the firm. Footnote 2

How, then, would we recognise if genuinely historical work had been accomplished in internationalisation studies (or indeed in any area of the social sciences)? Tilley ( 1983 , p. 79) gives us an answer:

By ‘genuinely historical’, I mean studies assuming that the time and place in which a structure or process appears makes a difference to its character, that the sequence in which similar events occur has a substantial impact on their outcomes, and that the existing record of past structures and processes is problematic, requiring systematic investigation in its own right instead of lending itself immediately to social-scientific synthesis.

History matters—the importance of historical effects in international business—is illustrated by Chitu et al. ( 2013 ), who document a ‘history effect’ in which the pattern of foreign bond holdings of US investors seven decades ago continues to influence holdings today. Holdings 70 years ago explain 10–15 % of the cross-country variation in current holdings, reflecting the fixed costs of market entry and exit together with endogenous learning. They note that fixed costs need not be large to have persistent effects on the geography of bilateral asset holdings—they need only to be different across countries. Evidence was also found of a ‘history effect’ in trade not unlike that in finance. The history effect is twice as large for non-dollar bonds as a result of larger sunk costs for US financial investments other than the dollar. Legacy effects loom large in international finance and trade.

It is argued in this paper that time and place (context) do make a difference to the structure and process of an individual firm’s internationalisation, that past structures and processes do influence outcomes and that proper acknowledgement of context is vital in understanding and theorising internationalisation. It is further argued that attention to these issues leads to a new conception of internationalisation.

2 Research Methods

Reflecting on the purpose of his methods in his book Bloodlands , on Eastern Europe in the period 1933–45, the historian Timothy Snyder ( 2010 , p. xviii) states that:

…its three fundamental methods are simple: insistence that no past event is beyond historical understanding or beyond the reach of historical enquiry; reflection upon the possibility of alternative choices and acceptance of the irreducible reality of choice in human affairs; and chronological attention to all of the Stalinist and Nazi policies that labelled large numbers of civilians and prisoners of war.

This paper follows similar principles. These are: (1) that the methods of history are appropriate to the study of the internationalisation of firms; (2) that choices and alternatives at given points of time are central to this process; (3) that the role of sequencing and time are central; and (4) that the comparative method is an aid to comprehension of the process of internationalisation.

This paper now examines research methods widely used in history Footnote 3 that have the capability to improve international business research. These are: (1) source criticism (here it is argued that international business researchers are insufficiently aware of deficiencies in “texts”); (2) the analysis of sequences, including time series analyses and process theorising; (3) comparative methods (not exclusive to historical research); and (4) counterfactual analyses (which are currently less utilised than in previous periods of international business theorising). This followed by a proposed research agenda based on the two key methods of examining change over time and utilising comparative analysis.

2.1 Source Criticism

The use of sources is as prevalent in international business as in history but they are often accepted uncritically. Gottschalk ( 1950 ), noting that few source documents are completely reliable, suggests that, ‘for each particular of a document the process of establishing credibility should be separately undertaken regardless of the general credibility of the author’. Given that reliability cannot be assumed, source criticism, as Kipping et al. ( 2014 ) argue, is fundamental to any historical research.

The trustworthiness of an author may establish a basic level of credibility for each statement, but each element must be separately evaluated. This requires questioning the provenance of the text and its internal reliability (Kipping et al. 2014 )—including, importantly, attention to language translation issues if relevant. This leads to the important checks brought about by triangulating the evidence. Triangulation requires the use of at least two independent sources (Kipping et al. 2014 ). This principle is utilised in international business journals by the requirement that both elements of a dyadic relationship are needed to cross check each other. Examples include licensor and licensee, both partners in a joint venture, parent and subsidiary in a multinational enterprise. The question of how far these are independent sources also needs careful investigation. Documents or statements addressed to different individuals and institutions may serve a variety of purposes. Those addressed to powerful individuals, groups or institutions may be intended for gain by the sender. Interviews may be designed to impress the interlocutor. The purpose of the document needs to be explicated. Documents may be designed for prestige, tax minimisation, satisfaction of guarantees (by government, sponsors or creditors) or to cover deficiencies in performance. The historian’s craft is, in part at least, to expose fraud and error (Bloch 1954 ).

Source criticism includes evaluating what is not present in archives, not just what is. Jones ( 1998 ) points out that the company archives many analysts require often do not survive—those that involve statutory obligations often do, but those involving high-level decision making, such as Board papers, often do not. He points out that ‘issues of capabilities, innovation and culture will necessitate looking at what happens “lower down” within a firm’s structure’ (Jones 1998 , p. 19). Further,

The study of intangibles such as the knowledge possessed within a firm, flows of information, and the corporate culture—and how all these things changes over time can involve a very wide range of historical record far removed from documents on strategies… Oral history—of staff employed at all levels—is of special use in examining issues of culture, information flows and systems (Jones 1998 , p. 19).

These issues—intangible assets, strategy, culture and decision making in the face of imperfect information—are crucial in international business strategy research.

In addition to criticisms based on material that exists in ‘the archive’, we need to recognise that the archive is the result of a selection process and therefore that excluded material may be important. Footnote 4 The selection process may be biased towards particular nations, regions, races, classes, genders, creeds, political groupings or belief systems. This is a key theme of ‘subaltern studies’ growing out of South Asia, and particularly India, in imperial times (Ludden 2001 ). The clear implication of these studies is that the colonial era archive was compiled by the colonial (British) administrators and this presents a largely pro-Imperial bias. However, it is also true that among the dispossessed voices, some were privileged (e.g., the Congress Party spokespeople) and others selected out. The lineage of subaltern studies leads us through Gramsci ( 1973 ) to postmodern views of the text: Derrida ( 1994 ), Foucault ( 1965 ), Barthes ( 2005 ). As well as not ‘hearing’ particular groups, the archive records may not cover particular questions or issues Footnote 5 (see also Belich 2009 Footnote 6 ; Decker 2013 ; Moss 1997 ).

2.2 Analysing Sequences, Time Series and Processes

There are a number of important techniques in historical research which are useful to international business scholars in examining process, sequence, rhythm and speed—all of which are important in internationalisation. As Mahoney points out ( 2004 , p. 88), ‘Causation is fundamentally a matter of sequence’. This is a problem addressed in economics as ‘Granger causality’ ( 1988 ). The critical question is not data access, but careful theorising. Sequence and duration arguments attempt to pick up sensitivity to time and place.

Process analysis holds out the possibility of integrating the time dimension into the internationalisation of firms. Process research, which is contrasted to ‘variance paradigms’, pays particular attention to the sequencing of events that take place within cases (Welch and Paavilainen-Mantymaki 2014 ). Events, not variables, are the crucial writ of analysis and capturing multiple time points builds narrative, event studies and panel data analyses. In combination with variance approaches, process analysis has the potential to explain the effects of context (place) and time in internationalisation. The critical task is the identification of the linking mechanisms that connect cause and effect. This requires connecting qualitative data evaluation with experimental reasoning. It is also a useful check on spurious statistical relationships (Granger and Newbold 1974 ). Easterlin ( 2013 ) argues that cross-sectional relationships are often taken to indicate causation when they may merely reflect historical experience, i.e., similar leader–follower patterns for variables that are causally unrelated. This is particularly the case when similar geographic patterns of diffusion are captured by the data—as may well be the case when studying the internationalisation of firms. This may reflect the fact that one set of (national) firms get an early start whilst others play catch-up.

We must, however, beware of ‘ingrained assumptions about historical periodization where mere temporal succession is insufficiently distinguished from historical explanation’ (Gregory 2012 , p. 9). This provides a connection to ‘path dependence’ and sensitivity to initial conditions. Careful examination of relevant data allows analysts to identify reactive sequences ‘whereby an initial outcome triggers a chain of temporally ordered and causally connected events that lead to a final outcome of interest’ (Mahoney 2004 , p. 91).

Page ( 2006 ), however, shows that path dependence describes a set of models, not a single model. Forms of history dependence can be divided between those where outcomes are history dependent and those in which the equilibria depend on history. Path dependence requires ‘a build-up of behavioural routines, social connections, or cognitive structures around an institution’ (p. 89). Page shows that there is a variety of types of path dependence, each of which can be precisely defined, and that it is insufficient to cite ‘increasing returns’ as evidence of path-dependent processes. The consequences for process research on internationalisation are profound and require researchers to be as precise as possible, when asserting path dependence, to evidence its roots and specify their impact on future trajectories. Jackson and Kollman ( 2010 ) build on Page’s definitions and suggest ‘If social scientists use notions of path dependence, they should have clearly articulated definitions and criteria for what constitutes a path dependent process’ (p. 258): ‘Any such formulation must be able to explain how the effects of initial and early outcomes are maintained over long periods of time and continue to be observed in current outcomes’ (p. 280). This is far stronger than a simple statement that ‘history matters’. Path-dependent sequences raise important theoretical issues and thereby contribute to a further and deeper round of understanding; as with quantitative analysis we need to be constantly attentive to sources of bias (Nickell 1981 ).

Understanding sequences entails additional complexities. Brown ( 2012 , p. xxii) points out that choosing the periodicity (start and end points of data collection and investigation) can risk coming to foregone conclusions and ‘a deceptive teleology’:

Two aspects of history are particularly important for historians: propulsion and periodization. The first concerns the forces that promote change. The second involves mental architecture: the chronological framework within which we set out history. Since all periodization presumes a theory of change, these are linked theoretical properties (Green 1993 , p. 17).

Propulsion and periodization—change and classification—are ultimately constructs and need to be placed both within a theoretical framework and a given context of time and place. This is a challenge to international business research which is often insufficiently theoretical and contextualised.

International business studies need to be sensitive to the period of study. Laidler ( 2012 , p. 5) advises,

The past may be the only source of data against which economic hypotheses can be tested or calibrated, but data never speak entirely for themselves. They need to be interpreted through a theory. When the only theory deemed suitable for this purpose embodies itself as part of its own structure, even on an ‘as if’ basis, then that structure is inevitably projected onto the past, and other perspectives on the historical record are obscured.

This suggests that a fundamental problem is that international business research is often inadequately theorised. Theories which stand up to testing in many historical periods are more robust than those that do not. Jones and Khanna ( 2006 , p. 455) see history as an important source of time series data: ‘historical variation is at least as good as contemporary cross-sectional variation in illuminating conceptual issues’. Although it should be noted that many historians are sensitive to the limits of generalisation across historical periods. Burgelman ( 2011 ) sees longitudinal qualitative research being situated between history as ‘particular generalization’ (Gaddis 2002 ) and reductionism; that is, ‘general particularization’.

Longitudinal research and good process research draw on both history’s narrative methods and statistical and mathematical models. Such longitudinal studies clearly need rigorous methods from both history and statistics. A relevant example is Kogut and Parkinson ( 1998 ), who examine the adoption of the multidivisional structure, testing Chandler’s ( 1962 ) core thesis over a long time period, ‘analysing history from the start’. Despite the difficulties of compiling archival data for a large sample of firms, the authors are able to test an innovative methodology on diffusion histories of the ‘M-form’ from the period beginning in 1950. They use a hazard model (of adopting the M-form) with imitation and firm covariates that predict adoption rates. The sample (62 firms) is large enough to be split into ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ adopters of this organisational innovation and a comparison of the difference between the two samples enables the authors to confirm Chandler’s historical account and to point to some qualifications concerning flows of information between firms which meant that proximate firms were more likely to adopt the M-form structure. Imitation effects by firms located in the same industry and firms with links to M-form adopters also seemed significant.

The Kogut and Parkinson ( 1998 ) study is a successful example of ‘History Meets Business Studies’ (p. 257) and also of the application of techniques of organisational demography. This approach has also been successfully applied to the birth and death of subsidiaries and foreign market entry strategies (Kogut 2009 ). Historical studies have established an important precedent of ‘the importance of sampling on founders rather than survivors and of the effects of age on mortality’ (Kogut 2009 , p. 721). Shaver ( 1998 ) pointed out that many previous studies had not accounted for endogeneity and were subject to self-selection bias but that such effects could be corrected for using a methodology that factors in the full history of entries, taking account of strategy choice based on firm attributes and industry conditions. Strategy choice is endogenous and self selected based on these conditions and modelling has to account for this. Concepts such as the ‘liability of newness’ (Stinchcombe 1965 ) and the (in International Business) celebrated ‘liability of foreignness’ (Zaheer 1995 after Hymer 1976 ) examine diffusion over time. There are, however, as Kogut ( 2009 ) points out, several unresolved challenges in the organisational demography literature. First, self-selection bias is still unresolved in that successful firms are more likely to venture abroad. Second, because of unobserved variables (such as the quality of the firm) heterogeneity remains in any sample of firms and any heterogeneous population can be shown to suffer ‘liability of newness’. Controls for heterogeneity, of course, are a palliative (e.g., size of firm) but it is difficult to control all such variation. A careful specification of the growth process of firms (despite Penrose ( 1959 ) and her heirs) still eludes us.

In concluding this section, it should be mentioned that cliometrics, or the measurement of history (also called the New Economic History) is not uncontroversial (Diebolt 2012 ). ‘Hypothetico-deductive models’ (utilising the counterfactual position) using ‘propositions contrary to the facts has not escaped criticism’ (Diebolt 2012 , p. 4), and they contrast with the inductive position of the German historical school (Grimmer-Solem 2003 ). The economistic tradition of ‘opportunity cost’ whereby the true costs of any action is the best alternative foregone, provides a firm philosophical link between economics and the counterfactual as discussed below.

2.3 Comparative Methods

The comparative method is of great importance throughout the social sciences. There are three classic comparators in social science research: across space, across time, and against a carefully specified counterfactual state of the world (Buckley et al. 1992 ). International business research has traditionally focused on just one of these—across space. Historical research specialises particularly in comparisons across time, but also has lessons in spatial comparison and in counterfactual analysis.

Research that depends on ex post statistical adjustment (such as cross-country regressions) has recently come under fire; there has been a commensurate shift of focus towards design-based research—in which control over confounding variables comes primarily from research design, rather than model-based statistical adjustment (Dunning 2012 , p. xvii).

The design of a randomised controlled experiment has three characteristics (Freedman et al. 2007 , pp. 4–8):

The response of the experimental subjects assigned to receive a treatment is compared to the response of subjects assigned to a control group. This allows comparisons of outcomes across the two groups.

The assignment of subjects to treatment and control groups is done at random—a coin toss, for example. This establishes ex ante symmetry between the groups and obviates the existence of confounding variables.

The manipulation of the treatment or intervention is under the control of the experimental research. This establishes further evidence for a causal relationship between the treatment and the outcomes (Dunning 2012 , p. 15).

Crucially most extant research utilises ‘as if random’ assignment of interventions rather than ‘natural’. Its success depends upon the plausibility of ‘as if random’, the credibility of models and the relevance of intervention. ‘Qualitative evidence plays a central role in the analysis of natural experiments’ (Dunning 2012 , p. 228). This is because an investigation of the causal process is critical (Collier et al. 2010 ) in avoiding ‘selecting on the dependent’ variable by analysing only those cases where causal-process observations appear to have played a productive inferential role. Indeed, Dunning ( 2012 , p. 229) suggests that a future research agenda should focus on developing a framework that distinguishes and predicts when and what kinds of causal-process observations provide the most useful leverage for causal inference in natural experiments. Results however may be very particular and parochial because of the limited availability of natural experiment possibilities (Yin 2014 ). Experimental results, therefore, come at a price.

The price for success is a focus that is too narrow and too local to tell us ‘what works’ in development, to design policy, or to advance scientific knowledge about development processes (Deaton 2009 , p. 426).

Comparison across places by geographic area or space is frequent in international business research (across nations, cultures, regions, areas, cities). The multinational enterprise is an excellent laboratory or natural experiment because it holds constant the single institution of the firm but varies the location of study. The division, and the later unification, of Germany allowed Kogut and Zander ( 2000 ) the opportunity to conduct a natural experiment by comparing the two sections of the Zeiss Company under socialism and capitalism. The experimental design measured the dependent variable (outcome)—the technological output of the two firms proxied by patents—under ‘treatments’ offered by the different economic contexts of the two different economic systems. This unusual design substituted for a random sample by eliminating the effects of extraneous factors and isolating the effects of the treatment variable on the ‘same’ firm. Comparative management experiments can be done by comparing company A’s subsidiary in Vietnam with its subsidiary in Virginia. This is the stock-in-trade of many international business experiments and was utilised by Hofstede ( 1991 , 1997 , 2001 ), whose work on culture held the host company (IBM) culture constant whilst varying the purported national cultural responses of the firm’s employees.

Comparisons across time, holding place constant, are the essence of ‘history’. They give rise to notions of ‘growth’, ‘progress’, ‘design’, ‘loss’. Chandler ( 1984 ) describes his method as the comparison of detailed case studies to generate ‘non historically specific generalizations’. Research in business history has challenged the Chandler thesis that managerial capitalism is universally becoming the norm (Whittington 2007 ; Rowlinson et al. 2007 ). Hannah ( 2007 ) illustrates the use of comparative historical data to challenge the received wisdom. As noted elsewhere in this piece, such comparisons are fraught with danger unless carefully conducted. Meanings of documents, words, artefacts and statements vary according to different point of time usage and must be carefully analysed as best practice historical research dictates. As Ragin says ( 1987 , p. 27),

many features of social life confound attempts to unravel causal complexity when experimental methods cannot be used… First, rarely does an outcome of interest to social scientists have a single cause… Second, causes rarely operate in isolation. Usually, it is the combined effect of various conditions their intersection in time and space, that produces a certain outcome… Third, a specific cause may have opposite effects depending on context.

These three factors—multiple, interacting causes, differential by context—are the very essence of international business research. Because of the difficulty of designing natural experiments International business research has emphasised statistical control in its methods. Ragin ( 1987 ) points out that statistical control is very different from experimental control. Footnote 7 Statistical control does not equate to experimental control: ‘the dependent variable is not examined under all possible combinations of values of the independent variables, as is possible in experimental investigations’ (Ragin 1987 , p. 61). Ragin presents a Boolean approach to qualitative comparison (after George Boole ( 2003 ) [1854] and also known as the algebra of logic or algebra of sets). Kogut ( 2009 ) shows the relevance of this approach to international business research (see also Saka-Helmhout 2011 ). A recent development of the use of Boolean algebra in international business is the application of fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis in the assessment of different models of capitalism (Judge et al. 2014 ).

Qualitative comparisons are of the essence in (historical) international business research. As Kogut ( 2009 ) shows, a proposition based on a three-cause explanation in order to avoid simplifying assumptions at the outset requires a truth table of 2 3 or eight combinations as in Fig. 1 . Thus, to achieve experimental control, the investigation needs eight cases with the characteristics shown in the table in order to determine which combination of causes (A, B, C) determines the outcome (1). (See Ragin 1987 , particularly Chapters 7 and 8.) Thus historical comparative data can focus our attention on cases as wholes and to explore the combinatorial complexities of causation (Ragin 1987 , p. 171). Footnote 8 It is also suggestive of the answer to the perennial question of how many cases are needed to satisfy a proposition. For instance, it might be suggested that the rise of Japan was due to (1) lifetime work contracts, (2) company unions and (3) the Keiretsu system. In order to prove or disprove the argument, the bottom line where all three proposed casual factors are present must be contrasted with situations where none of them are present (the top line) where only one of the proposed causes is present and where combinations of two causes are present. This enables the analyst to identify necessary and sufficient conditions. In a three cause theoretical proposal, a total of eight cases are needed.

Truth table for a three cause proposition

As Mahoney ( 2004 , p. 82) says, ‘comparative-historical methodology offers tools well adapted to the analysis of necessary and sufficient causes’. This need not rely on deterministic logic because necessary and sufficient causes can be expressed in a probabilistic framework. This also aligns with expressing variables in a continuous rather than in a dichotomous fashion. These techniques are helpful, as Saka-Helmhout ( 2011 ) points out, in analysing cross-case analyses of bundles of conditions, in particular in the identification of patterns of regularities and differences. The methodological stream (and theoretical underpinnings) of comparative historical research therefore lead to the more systematic pinpointing of necessary and sufficient causes in international business case research. For applications to management research, see Oz ( 2004 ).

2.4 Counterfactual Analysis

The third classic comparator is the ‘alternative position’. The counterfactual question—‘what if?’—is a particular type of thought experiment designed to elucidate causality. It is widely (if sometimes unwittingly) used in economics where ‘opportunity cost’ (the real cost of resources) is defined as the cost of the next best alternative foregone. The ‘alternative position’ and its specification have long been a particular problem in international business research—classically in the analysis of foreign direct investment (FDI). What would have happened in the absence of a particular foreign investment? (Reddaway et al. 1968 ; Steuer 1973 ; Cairncross 1953 ; Buckley et al. 1992 , p. 36). Jones and Khanna ( 2006 , p. 464) say that a ‘comparative approach also gets at the spirit of specifying counterfactuals’.

Historians have long had to face this issue. Several variously sophisticated attempts have been made to try to answer the question of what would (might) have happened had some of the crucial turning points of history turned out differently (Beatty 2011 ; Ferguson 1997 ; Cowley 1999 ; Lebow 2014 ). Lebow ( 2012 ) points out that counterfactuals are frequently used in physical and biological sciences to develop and evaluate sophisticated, non-linear models. The counterfactual has to be well defined and this requires a thorough analysis and presentation of the context of the alternative position. Such thought experiments are perhaps history’s closest comparator to a laboratory experiment (Gaddis 2002 , p. 100)—although see the section on natural experiments in the social sciences above. The counterfactual counteracts the static nature of much historical analysis by focusing upon dynamics and processes.

Durand and Vaara ( 2009 , p. 1245) have examined the role of counterfactuals in explicating causality in the field of business strategy. They argue that:

Counterfactual history can add to our understanding of the context-specific construction of resource-based competitive advantage and path dependence, and causal modelling can help to reconceptualize the relationships between resources and performance.

The role of counterfactual reasoning in organisation studies was also explored in two issues of Management & Organizational History [volume 3(1) 2008 and volume 4(2) 2007]. MacKay ( 2007 ) pointed out that counterfactuals can guard against path dependencies in both structure of organisations and perception. Counterfactuals illustrate that the world could be other than it is and help the analyst to evaluate different possibilities including decisions and their outcomes. Thus socio-economic and technical path dependencies can introduce rigidities and cognitive or psychological path dependencies can impair organisational learning. Toms and Beck ( 2007 ) criticise received counterfactuals (on the Lancashire cotton industry) as suffering from the problems of teleology and hindsight that occur when the counterfactual is contaminated by ex post knowledge of the outcome (Maielli and Booth 2008 ). Footnote 9 Toms and Beck ( 2007 , p. 315) attempt to construct a history ‘from the perspective of decision making entrepreneurs as embedded historical actors’. This is surely the model for internationalisation researchers, when examining past decisions and their outcome.

The key, as Leunig ( 2010 ) points out, is to be explicit in specifying the counterfactual position as this provides more evidence than a simple judgement on the impact of (say) a critical innovation. Fogel ( 1964 ) in finding that agricultural land opened up by the railroads might otherwise have been undeveloped, examined the possibility of an alternative network of canals. Footnote 10 This was done not by simple perusal of a map but by examining detailed typographical maps, as a canal builder would do. A limitation of counterfactual analysis is the ability to go on to use comparative analysis because the carefully constructed counterfactual is often locationally or temporally specific. For instance, although in Fogel’s counterfactual, canals could have done most of the work of railroads, he assumed away the vagaries of the weather—in the Northeast of the US at least, canals would have been frozen for at least 4 months of the year. Footnote 11 An excellent example of a carefully constructed counterfactual is Casson’s construction of the (optimal) counterfactual railway network (complete with timetable) for the UK taking account of network performance, the physical geography of the UK, Victorian urbanisation and traffic, engineering constraints, regulation, institutional and political constraints (Casson 2009 ).

The counterfactual has an important place in the development of international business theory as analyses of the impact of FDI on host and source countries have been cast in the terms of the ‘alternative position’—what would have happened in the absence of FDI. Foreshadowing the current debate an offshoring and outsourcing, earlier literature on the impact of FDI following Hufbauer and Adler ( 1968 ) identified three polar ‘alternative positions’ (Buckley and Artisien 1987 , pp. 73, 78–79, 80).

The classical assumption assumes that FDI produces a net addition to capital formation in the host country but a similar decline in capital formation in the source country. This is equivalent to the assumption that FDI substitutes for exports. The reverse classical assumption assumes that the FDI substitutes for investment in the host country but leaves investment in the source country unchanged. This is equivalent to ‘defensive investment’ where the source country firm cannot penetrate the target market via exports and would lose the market to host country firms in the absence of FDI. The anti-classical assumption is that FDI does not substitute for capital investment in the source country, neither does it reduce investment by host country firms. Consequently FDI increases world capital formation (in contrast to the other two assumptions where world capital formation is unchanged).

Anticlassical conditions are most likely when host country firms are incapable of undertaking the projects fulfilled by FDI. Each of these assumptions is static and rigid—not allowing for a growth of demand, perhaps from the ‘presence effect’. An organic model, postulating that FDI substitutes for exports in the short run, but in the long run substitutes for rival investment is more likely. Hood and Young ( 1979 ) pointed out that the relationship between FDI and exports needs to be fully specified in any such examination of effects of FDI.

This debate needs to be updated as it predated studies of MNEs’ foreign market servicing strategies and motives other than market-seeking. A parallel move away from economic counterfactuals towards specifying alternative decision making scenarios for decision-making entrepreneurs would be a step forward here (Toms and Beck 2007 ). A further important question here concerns the identity of the decision maker and whether ownership (foreign versus domestic) matters. As concern with the employment impact of FDI at home and abroad grows, counterfactual analysis is useful in specifying the myriad impacts (employment among them) of modern MNEs.

The ‘historical alternatives approach’ (Zeitlin 2007 ) is a specifically business history variant of counterfactual analysis. The historical alternatives approach is promoted by Zeitlin ( 2007 ) as ‘against teleology and determinism’. The approach suggests that plasticity of technology has been underrated, leading to technological determinism of a particularly narrow type. Strategic action in the face of uncertainty, mutability and hedging strategies gives a far wider range of outcomes than conventionally allowed for and ‘the market’ is dogmatically and narrowly the result of historical construction. Size of firms, strategic action, industry imperatives and rationality are too glibly taken as determining factors and the result is an excessively pre-determined view of business choices. While it is certainly the case that many analyses based on historical reasoning are unduly constrained in terms of other potential outcomes, alternative futures have to be specified extremely carefully and constraints that are to be lifted on outcomes must be spelled out and the degree to which they are assumed to be not binding requires extensive and meticulous research.

In internationalisation research, alternative positions are important concepts in the development of the process. The decisions that key managers make can be evaluated by presenting them with alternative scenarios, as Buckley et al. ( 2007 ) did. This is usually, for practical and cost reasons, a point-of-time rather than a continuous exercise even though, in principle, these choices could be presented to managers frequently throughout the internationalisation process. There are examples of where a single investment is considered as a ‘Go/No go’ decision and others where several alternative investments are simultaneously considered (Buckley et al. 1978 ). In many cases firms will themselves investigate alternative scenarios even if this is done informally rather than through ‘scenario planning’.

3 Discussion

Table 1 shows the areas where the four key methods identified above have been successfully applied in international business.

The application of the above principles of method suggests that a new international business history is called for that relies on the two key principles of examining change over time and using the comparative method. If we accept that the study of history is about change over time, then international business history needs to take a long-run view of change and of the role of multinational firms in large scale social and economic development. This presents a major challenge in view of the material in archives. Company archives cover the world from the point of view of the (single) company. In international business this represents only one actor in a complex drama. The roles of host and source countries are perforce omitted. It behoves the writers of international company histories to take a wider perspective than just the company’s viewpoint. In approaching the comparative method, the spatial comparison encompasses the international dimension but changes over time require a longer run view than most company histories allow for. Comparing the role of a company in the eighteenth century with the nineteenth is not often possible from a single company’s archives (and it can be argued, were this to be so, we would be dealing with an outlier). In short, the writing of international business history needs to be more imaginative, not only in method but also in its engagement with wider theory and technique.

It is equally the case that international business theory and methods can enrich historical research. Footnote 12 In addition to the Chitu et al. ( 2013 ) examination of ‘history effects’ in international finance and trade, international business can be focused on global history in the way that Bell and Dale ( 2011 ) analysed the economic and financial dimensions of the medieval pilgrimage business (using contract and network theory and the analysis of saints’ shrines as business franchise, under an umbrella brand of the Universal Catholic Church).

3.1 Historical Research Approaches and the Internationalisation Process

The question of how firm internationalisation evolves over time is best answered by the careful use of historical research methods duly adapted for the context of international business research (Jones and Zeitlin 2007 ) . The temporal dimension of the internationalisation process needs to be centre-stage and critical decision points and turning points need to be mapped on a timeline and against feasible alternatives. As extant international business research has shown (Buckley et al. 2007 ), managers are only partly guided by rational processes and context and contingency play roles in determining the final decisions. If we know when these critical decisions are made, then it becomes much easier to understand the factors that were in play in the decision makers’ minds. It is frequently remarked that key ‘events’ (a coup, the launch of a rival’s product, a competitive market entry) were the triggers for investment (or non-investment) decisions and a timeline of events—a mapping of process—can be a key to understanding. The temporal sequencing of ‘events’ in the internationalisation process is clearly vital to comprehension of the firm’s strategy and decisions. As well as time, at a given place, we need to add place at a given time for all these events. Thus a double comparative across time and space is necessary for a rounded understanding of outcomes.

Process research also needs to comprehend simultaneous processes as there is not just one sequence of events in internationalisation; rather, there are multiple. Selection of processes to track has to be theoretically driven. Process research cannot stand apart from the theory, it is has to be fully engaged with the appropriate theories and to feed back into them (Paavilainen-Mantymaki and Welch 2013 ). This is fully in accord with Pettigrew’s ( 1997 ) approach to processual analysis. Moreover, as Pettigrew ( 1997 , p. 340) says, ‘The time quality of a processual analysis thereby lies in linking processes to outcomes’. Linking internationalisation processes to outcomes (performance) is a missing element in our understanding—the results of the managerial decisions form an essential element of a feedback loop to further internationalisation.

The four generic methods applied in historical research outlined here—source criticism, time series analysis, the use of comparative methods and counterfactual analysis—are all vital in constructing a proper process analysis of the internationalisation of the firm (or of a firm’s internationalisation). It is fundamental that a critical appraisal of all sources be undertaken, be they company statements, archives, documents or interviews. Wherever possible these should be triangulated against other sources. Nothing should be taken on trust and, if it has to be, this should be clearly stated. Wherever possible, a timeline of relevant events should be made in order to sequence the decision processes and outcomes. The construction of multiple timelines—of different managers, sub-units of the firm and other key actors (such as competitors, agents, customers, suppliers, governmental bodies, support agencies) should be compared and contrasted. The coincidence in time of actions by interested parties is prima facie evidence of joint causality. These techniques can be extended by the use of comparisons not only in time but in space. The geographical mapping of actions and outcomes gives richness to the process analysis. The transmission and impact of decisions from one geographical point (e.g., headquarters) to another (a subsidiary, a potential takeover victim), the time-lags involved and the reaction time of the recipient are all vital in understanding internationalisation. Counterfactual analysis, too, can be a useful tool. Firms often approach internationalisation decisions with a number of contingencies. If they cannot acquire foreign firm X, should they turn to Y, or to a greenfield venture instead? These alternatives are useful to know and it may be possible to construct feasible alternative internationalisation paths.

In summary, historical research methods and approaches provide a research design for internationalisation process studies that enhance the depth of understanding by incorporating concrete timelines, alternatives and decision processes.

3.2 A New Concept of Internationalisation

The new concept of internationalisation that emerges from a consideration of the light shed by historical research on managerial processes is that internationalisation is the outcome of a set of decisions, dependent on context and previous decisions, considering alternative locations, entry and development methods in a choice set of time and space. In these sequential decisions, knowledge of past decisions and their outcomes plays a part in the next round of decisions. Hence companies can create ‘vicious circles’ or ‘virtuous circles’ in their internationalisation processes. In this sense, a knowledge of history of the company making the decision and of similar companies making comparable decisions can be valuable for the manager. History matters to decision-makers as well as analysts. The question of when to take history into account and when to ignore it and ‘take a chance’ is the essence of managerial judgement (and of ‘real options theory’—see Kogut and Kulatilaka 2001 ; Buckley et al. 2002 ). Those who make regular correct calls will develop a ‘track record’ and be valued accordingly. Thus both the weight of history and the judgement of successful individuals will build path dependence into the internationalisation process.

The research approach formulated in this article encompasses the Uppsala approach to internationalisation (Johanson and Vahlne 1977 , 2009 ) as a special case. The Uppsala approach has no explicit role for time. It explains market entry as a sequence which is determined by psychic proximity to the source country in a loose path dependent fashion. A more careful specification of the relationship between market entry and psychic distance and an explicit acknowledgement of the role of time would allow a fully historical analysis of market entry sequencing in the Uppsala tradition.

4 Conclusion: The Response to the Challenge of Historical Research

The last sentences of Butterfield’s ( 1965 , p. 132) The Whig Interpretation of History encompasses the challenge of historical research methods: ‘In other words, the truth of history is no simple matter, all packed and parcelled ready for handling in the market-place. And the understanding of the past is not so easy as it is sometimes made to appear’. Historical research methods can help international business researchers to be more questioning, analytical and critical and to think laterally in terms of alternative states of the world, different choices and outcomes. There is a justifiable argument that international business research is insufficiently critical of ‘texts’ in all their forms—company statements, official statistics, interviews with managers among them—and historical research has a number of techniques for improving the penetration of meaning behind texts, as this piece has shown.

In using research methods derived from history we must always factor in ‘Contingency, choice and agency’ (Clark 2012 , p. 362). We should also remember that history interacts with geography—context is crucial. To quote the historian Peter Brown’s work on wealth in the early Christian period, ‘A true history of Latin Christianity requires an unremitting sense of place’ (Brown 2012 , p. xxii). A good example relevant to international business is the combined use of historical, geographical and sectoral data by Becuwe, Blancheton and Charles ( 2012 ) in analysing the decline of French trade power in the ‘first globalization’ of 1850–1913. A sense of place involves understanding both the global macro context and the particular location.

There is an awkward disjunction between traditional historical research and hypothetico-deductive modelling. This is paralleled by the lack of integration between quantitative and qualitative methods in international business research, arising from their philosophical bases in positivism and subjectivism. The careful integration of historical research methods into international business provides us with one channel of progress towards a more complete understanding of the phenomena of international business.

In the particular case of the analysis of the internationalisation of the firm, historical approaches place managerial judgement central to the process. Such judgement, however, is constrained by context. This context is both temporal and spatial. ‘When’ and ‘where’ matter in both an individual decision and the analysis of decisions. The use of the plural here implies sequencing and therefore a focus on process. The choice set faced by the manager is constrained by what has gone before—by history. This does not determine the next decision in the sequence but it influences it. The new concept of internationalisation is that sequence, not events, are at the heart of the international growth of the firm, that spatial issues (including psychic distance to a potential host country) must be accounted for, and that past decisions constrain outcomes.

On the importance of methodology (in international business as elsewhere) we can end with a quote from Kogut ( 2009 , p. 711): ‘It is one of the best-kept secrets of research that a methodological contribution is the most powerful engine for the replication and diffusion of an idea’.

It is suggested by Cannadine ( 2013 , p. 9) that academic histories are often responsible for emphasising divergences rather than similarities: ‘Most academics are trained to look for divergences and disparities rather than for similarities and affinities, but this relentless urge to draw distinctions often results in important connections and resemblances being overlooked’. The contrast between history and social science has been an issue for over a century (see Simiand 1903 ).

See also the debate on the ‘historic turn’ in organisation studies (Clark and Rowlinson 2004 ).

Stephanie Decker ( 2013 , p. 6) identified four features that ‘clearly distinguish historical from non-historical research designs’. These are: reconstruction from primary sources (empirical rigour), thick contextualisation in time and space (empirical at times, theoretical rigour), periodization (theoretical rigour when combined with strong historiography) and historical narrative (accessibility, empirical and theoretical rigours).

For an excellent review of the use (and extension) of archive material see Wilkins and Hill ( 2011 ) ‘Bibliographical Essay’ pp. 445–458.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful for comments on earlier versions from Chris Clark (Cambridge), Simon Ball (Leeds), Andrew Thompson (Exeter), Niall Ferguson (Harvard), Jeremy Black (Exeter), Mark Casson (Reading), Janet Casson (Oxford), Catherine Casson (Birmingham), Jonathan Steinberg (Pennsylvania), Catherine Welch (Sydney), Adrian Bell (Reading), Peter Miskell (Reading), Stephanie Decker (Aston), Geoffrey Jones (Harvard), Mira Wilkins (Florida International University), an anonymous reviewer for the AIBUK 2013 Conference at Aston University, participants at AIBUK Aston 2013, three anonymous reviewers for AIB 2013 and participants at the AIB Conference, Istanbul, July 2013, two anonymous referees and particularly to the editors of this Focused Issue.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for International Business, University of Leeds (CIBUL), Leeds University Business School, University of Leeds, Leeds, England, UK

Peter J. Buckley

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter J. Buckley .

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Buckley, P.J. Historical Research Approaches to the Analysis of Internationalisation. Manag Int Rev 56 , 879–900 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-016-0300-0

Download citation

Received : 31 October 2013

Revised : 07 May 2015

Accepted : 26 May 2015

Published : 29 September 2016

Issue Date : December 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-016-0300-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Historical research methods
Internationalisation
Process research
Business history
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

Our websites may use cookies to personalize and enhance your experience. By continuing without changing your cookie settings, you agree to this collection. For more information, please see our University Websites Privacy Notice .

Neag School of Education

Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical research.

Historical research answers the question, “How did things use to be?” When examining documents, historical researchers are faced with two key issues: primary versus secondary sources and external versus internal criticism.

A was prepared by someone who was a participant or direct witness to an event. A was prepared by someone who obtained his or her information about an event from someone else.

refers to the authenticity of the document. Once a document has been determined to be genuine (external criticism), researchers need to determine if the content is accurate ( ).

We conduct historical research for a number of reasons:

Del Siegle, Ph.D. University of Connecticut [email protected] www.delsiegle.info

updated 2/01/2024

A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

How it works

Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

History is a study of past incidents, and it’s different from natural science. In natural science, researchers prefer direct observations. Whereas in historical research, a researcher collects, analyses the information to understand, describe, and explain the events that occurred in the past.

They aim to test the truthfulness of the observations made by others. Historical researchers try to find out what happened exactly during a certain period of time as accurately and as closely as possible. It does not allow any manipulation or control of variables .

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

You can use historical research method to:

Uncover the unknown fact.
Answer questions
Identify the association between the past and present.
Understand the culture based on past experiences..
Record and evaluate the contributions of individuals, organisations, and institutes.

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Historical research involves the following steps:

Select the Research Topic
Collect the Data
Analyse the Data
Criticism of Data
Present your Findings

Tips to Collect Data

Step 1 – select the research topic.

If you want to conduct historical research, it’s essential to select a research topic before beginning your research. You can follow these tips while choosing a topic and developing a research question .

Consider your previous study as your previous knowledge and data can make your research enjoyable and comfortable for you.
List your interests and focus on the current events to find a promising question.
Take notes of regular activities and consider your personal experiences on a specific topic.
Develop a question using your research topic.
Explore your research question by asking yourself when? Why? How

Step 2- Collect the Data

It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for data collection . Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are the original first-hand resources such as documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:

Conscious Information : It’s a type of information recorded and restored consciously in the form of written, oral documents, or the actual witnesses of the incident that occurred in the past.

It includes the following sources:

Records Government documents Images autobiographies letters

Constitiutions Court-decisions Diaries Audios Videos

Wills Declarations Licenses Reports

Unconscious information : It’s a type of information restored in the form of remains or relics.

It includes information in the following forms:

Fossils Tools Weapons Household articles Clothes or any belonging of humans

Language literature Artifacts Abandoned places Monuments

Secondary Sources

Sometimes it’s impossible to access primary sources, and researchers rely on secondary sources to obtain information for their research.

It includes:

Publications
Periodicals
Encyclopedia

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

After collecting the information, you need to analyse it. You can use data analysis methods like

Thematic analysis
Coding system
Theoretical model ( Researchers use multiple theories to explain a specific phenomenon, situations, and behavior types.)
Quantitative data to validate

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

Data criticism is a process used for identifying the validity and reliability of the collected data. It’s of two types such as:

External Criticism :

It aims at identifying the external features of the data such as signature, handwriting, language, nature, spelling, etc., of the documents. It also involves the physical and chemical tests of paper, paint, ink, metal cloth, or any collected object.

Internal Criticism :

It aims at identifying the meaning and reliability of the data. It focuses on the errors, printing, translation, omission, additions in the documents. The researchers should use both external and internal criticism to ensure the validity of the data.

Step 5 – Present your Findings

While presenting the findings of your research , you need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. Historical material can be organised based on the theme and topic, and it’s known as thematic and topical arrangement. You can follow these tips while writing your research paper :

Build Arguments and Narrative

Your research aims not just to collect information as these are the raw materials of research. You need to build a strong argument and narrate the details of past events or incidents based on your findings.

Organise your Argument

You can review the literature and other researchers’ contributions to the topic you’ve chosen to enhance your thinking and argument.

Proofread, Revise and Edit

After putting your findings on a paper, you need to proofread it to weed out the errors, rewrite it to improve, and edit it thoroughly before submitting it.

Are you looking for professional research writing services?

We hear you.

Whether you want a full dissertation written or need help forming a dissertation proposal, we can help you with both.
Get different dissertation services at ResearchProspect and score amazing grades!

In this world of technology, many people rely on Google to find out any information. All you have to do is enter a few keywords and sit back. You’ll find several relevant results onscreen.

It’s an effective and quick way of gathering information. Sometimes historical documents are not accessible to everyone online, and you need to visit traditional libraries to find out historical treasures. It will help you explore your knowledge along with data collection.

You can visit historical places, conduct interviews, review literature, and access primary and secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, publications, documents, etc. You can take notes while collecting the information as it helps to organise the data accurately.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Advantages	Disadvantages
It is easy to calculate and understand the obtained information. It is applied to various time periods based on industry custom. It helps in understanding current educational practices, theories, and problems based on past experiences. It helps in determining when and how a specific incident exactly happened in the past.	A researcher cannot control or manipulate the variables. It’s time-consuming Researchers cannot affect past incidents. Historical Researchers need to rely on the available data most excessively on secondary data. Researchers cannot conduct surveys and experiments in the past.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the initial steps to perform historical research.

Initial steps for historical research:

Define research scope and period.
Gather background knowledge.
Identify primary and secondary sources.
Develop research questions.
Plan research approach.
Begin data collection and analysis.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH: A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

This paper is a write-up about one of many qualitative research method, namely historical research method.

Related Papers

International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)

IJRASET Publication

Historical research describes the past things what was happened. This is related with investigating, recording as well as interpreting the past events with respect to the in present perspectives. Historical research is a procedure for the observation with which researcher. It is a systematic collection and objective evaluation of the collected data with respect to the first occurrence to verify causes and effects related to the events with the help of these two explain the present events as well as anticipate for the future work purpose

Dr Yashpal D Netragaonkar

To find out how and why theories and practices have been developed which are now prevail in schools , a study on the purpose of historical research is very helpful. It deals with the significance of education and its interrel ationship with school and curriculum. In the said research, a study of Historical Research was conducted. Keywords - Historical, Perspective, Predictions, Facts, Past, Hypothesis

ICERI2009 Proceedings

Costas Vassilakis

The paper presents the results of a study on how historians conduct research in a historical archive, and the methodologies they use while searching. Historic research involves finding, using and correlating information within primary and secondary sources, in order to understand past events. Historians conduct research systematically, by examining past events to renew the past; historic research may involve interpretation to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that have influenced these events, and the expected ...

Methods of Analysis

Stephen Petrina

It would seem that historical method has always implied case study if interpreted as the history of single events, episodic history as different from universal history, courtes durées as different from longues durées. From the early twentieth century, historical case study was basically biography, particularities of individuals used to counter the “vast amount of generalization” marking most histories and textbooks (Nichols, 1927, p. 270). Yet historical case study, in the way historians think of it, is primarily a post-WWII methodology.

Miguel S. Valles

El uso de materiales de archivo como punto de partida al disenar y acometer la investigacion social da por supuesto que en nuestras sociedades complejas ha echado raices hace tiempo una cultura de archivo (para compartir y reusar). Esta mentalidad y practica de investigacion se ha desarrollado primero y esta bien asentada en el caso de las estadisticas, encuestas y otros documentos primarios o secundarios. En cambio, es menos frecuente y ciertamente no una actividad rutinaria por lo que respecta a los datos cualitativos. Unicamente algunos de los materiales primarios y elaborados que se reunen durante la investigacion cualitativa pasan a formar parte de un archivo para su ulterior re-analisis. Pueden ser practicas y experiencias de trastienda de un proyecto, materiales en bruto tales como notas de campo, grabaciones de audio y visuales, y otros documentos producidos a lo largo del proceso de investigacion. Este volumen presenta una variopinta gama de articulos que abordan experienci...

Joseph Bryant

The Research on History I

ISTES Publication

The Research on History I Editors Özlem Muraz Budak Through its wide field of study, the science of history has succeeded in addressing all kinds of issues that have happened in the past. Many events that have happened in the past and affect the future have found a place in the science of history. It is important for every nation to know its history in order to learn lessons from the past. Every nation has a unique culture and these cultures extend to the present day. The science of history is used to learn about the past. This book aims to contribute to the development of scientific publications and publishing in social sciences in general and history in particular. In this sense, qualified studies covering every subject related to both national and regional history and world history are included. We will be pleased to contribute to the literature with these original works written in every field of history and to the qualified scientific studies related to the auxiliary branches of history. Citation Budak, Ö. M. (Ed.). (2023). The Research on History I. ISTES Organization.

Albert Mills

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research

Maria Tamboukou

The use of archival materials as a point of departure when designing and launching social research takes for granted that a culture of archiving (for sharing and re-use) has rooted time ago in our complex societies. This mentality and research practice first flourished and is fairly well installed in the case of statistics, surveys and certain other primary or secondary documents. On the contrary, it is less frequent and certainly not a routine activity for qualitative data. Only some of the raw and elaborated materials gathered during ...

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Denise Nicole Green

Isidora Sáez-Rosenkranz

Jim Parsons

American Political Science Review

Flemming Mikkelsen

William Outhwaite and Stephen P. Turner, eds., The SAGE Handbook of Social Science Methodology. (London: SAGE.

John R. Hall

Anil Kumar Prasanna Devaramatha Magala

Linda Chiang

Robert Rosenstone

Journal of Management History

Wim van Lent

Arie M Dubnov

AJHSSR Journal

Approaches to Historiography II.

Vilmos Erős

Business & Society

Lyn Batchelor

Daniel A Starrs

Bento Selau , Fabiane Adela Tonetto Costas , Manuel de la Mata , Malba Barahona , Manolis Dafermos , Mercedes Cubero , ricardo baquero , Julia Lucas , Alyona Ivanova

lorenzo bosi

purnawan basundoro

Library & Information Science Research

Michael Widdersheim

Histos Supplement 15

Andrew G Scott

American Communist History

Dermot Quinn

Thomas Cauvin

Historical Analysis and Interpretation


of the historical document or narrative differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences. but acknowledge that the two are related; that the facts the historian reports are selected and reflect therefore the historian’s judgment of what is most significant about the past. of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears. , including the importance of the individual; the influence of ideas, human interests, and beliefs; the accidental and the irrational; and the role of chance by formulating examples of historical contingency, of how different choices could have led to different consequences. by contrasting different historians’ choice of questions, and their use of sources reflecting different experiences, perspectives, beliefs, and points of view, and by demonstrating how an emphasis on different causes contributes to different interpretations. , subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached. concerning alternative interpretations of the past. , including both the limitations and opportunities made possible by past decisions.	RH 9-10.3: Analyze in detail a series of events described in a text; determine whether earlier events caused later ones or simply preceded them. RI 5.6: Analyze multiple accounts of the same event or topic, noting important similarities and differences in the point of view they represent. RH 6-8.6: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). RH 9-10.6: Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts. RH 6-8.8: Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. Rh 6-8.9: Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic. RH 9-10.9: Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources.

of the historical document or narrative differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences. but acknowledge that the two are related; that the facts the historian reports are selected and reflect therefore the historian’s judgment of what is most significant about the past. of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears. , including the importance of the individual; the influence of ideas, human interests, and beliefs; the accidental and the irrational; and the role of chance by formulating examples of historical contingency, of how different choices could have led to different consequences. by contrasting different historians’ choice of questions, and their use of sources reflecting different experiences, perspectives, beliefs, and points of view, and by demonstrating how an emphasis on different causes contributes to different interpretations. , subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached. concerning alternative interpretations of the past. , including both the limitations and opportunities made possible by past decisions.

RH 9-10.3: Analyze in detail a series of events described in a text; determine whether earlier events caused later ones or simply preceded them.

RI 5.6: Analyze multiple accounts of the same event or topic, noting important similarities and differences in the point of view they represent.

RH 6-8.6: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).

RH 9-10.6: Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts.

RH 6-8.8: Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text.

Rh 6-8.9: Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic.

RH 9-10.9: Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources.

>NEXT: Historical Research Capabilities & the Common Core

Interesting links

1. Chronological Thinking
2. Historical Comprehension
4. Historical Research Capabilities
5. Historical Issues-Analysis and Decision-Making
BLM Situation
Covid 19: Making History
Current Projects
Developing Standards in Grades K-4
Food Connects Us
Historical Reflections on the George Floyd Protests. By Ian Price
History Standards
How to create a successful application
How to enroll in History 195
Internship Application
Internship Sites
LA Neighborhood Project
Living through the Great Plague of London
Moving Forward
Poverty in the British Popular Imagination
Significance of History for the Educated Citizen
There’s a Reason Why COVID-19 Is Killing Black and Brown Americans: It’s Called Racism
United States Era 1
Use It Don’t Waste It: Vital Lessons of the Covid-19 Pandemic & Navigating Our “New Normal”
World History Era 1
World History Era 2
World History Era 3
World History Era 4
World History Era 5
World History Era 6
World History Era 7
World History Era 8
World History Era 9
World History Resources
About this project
Definition of Standards
Historical Thinking Standards
HistoryCorps Internships
United States Era 2
Criteria for the Development of Standards
National Center for History in the Schools
Public History Courses at UCLA
Structural Racism and Public Health
United States History Content Standards
A Global Pandemic
Developing Standards
Topical Organization
United States Era 3
World History Content Standards
4. Historical Research Capabilities
Climate Change
Content Standards for K-4
Historical Understanding
Meet Our Interns
Standards FAQ
United States Era 4
5. Historical Issues
Covid and the Performing Arts
Historical Thinking
Policy Issues
Standards for Grades K-4
United States Era 5
Covid and the 2020 Presidential Elections
Integrating Thinking and Understandings
Putting Historical Thinking Skills to Work
United States Era 6
United States Era 7
United States Era 8
United States Era 9
Alignment to Common Core Standards
United States Era 10
World History Across the Eras
October 2016
February 2016

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics.

Historical research methods primarily involve collecting information from primary and secondary sources. While differences exist between these sources, organizations and institutions can use both types of sources to assess historical events and provide proper context comprehensively.

Using historical research methods, historians provide institutions with historical insights that can give perspectives on the future.

Individuals interested in advancing their careers as historians can pursue an advanced degree, such as a Master of Arts in History , to help them develop a systematic understanding of historical research and learn about the use of digital tools for acquiring, accessing, and managing historical information.

Historians use historical research methods to obtain data from primary and secondary sources and, then, assess how the information contributes to understanding a historical period or event. Historical research methods are used with primary and secondary sources. Below is a description of each type of source.

What Is a Primary Source?

Primary sources—raw data containing first-person accounts and documents—are foundational to historical and academic research. Examples of primary sources include eyewitness accounts of historical events, written testimonies, public records, oral representations, legal documents, artifacts, photographs, art, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. Individuals often can find primary sources in archives and collections in universities, libraries, and historical societies.

A primary source, also known as primary data, is often characterized by the time of its creation. For example, individuals studying the U.S. Constitution’s beginnings can use The Federalist Papers, a collection of essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, written from October 1787 to May 1788, as a primary source for their research. In this example, the information was witnessed firsthand and created at the time of the event.

What Is a Secondary Source?

Primary sources are not always easy to find. In the absence of primary sources, secondary sources can play a vital role in describing historical events. A historian can create a secondary source by analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting information or data provided in primary sources. For example, a modern-day historian may use The Federalist Papers and other primary sources to reveal historical insights about the series of events that led to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. As a result, the secondary source, based on historical facts, becomes a reliable source of historical data for others to use to create a comprehensive picture of an event and its significance.

The Value of Historical Research for Providing Historical Perspectives

Current global politics has its roots in the past. Historical research offers an essential context for understanding our modern society. It can inform global concepts, such as foreign policy development or international relations. The study of historical events can help leaders make informed decisions that impact society, culture, and the economy.

Take, for example, the Industrial Revolution. Studying the history of the rise of industry in the West helps to put the current world order in perspective. The recorded events of that age reveal that the first designers of the systems of industry, including the United States, dominated the global landscape in the following decades and centuries. Similarly, the digital revolution is creating massive shifts in international politics and society. Historians play a pivotal role in using historical research methods to record and analyze information about these trends to provide future generations with insightful historical perspectives.

In addition to creating meaningful knowledge of global and economic affairs, studying history highlights the perspectives of people and groups who triumphed over adversity. For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women’s voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform.

History also is the story of the collective identity of people and regions. Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different cultures, creating opportunities for people to become more culturally aware and empowered.

The Tools and Techniques of Historical Research Methods

A primary source is not necessarily an original source. For example, not everyone can access the original essays written by Hamilton because they are precious and must be preserved and protected. However, thanks to digitization, institutions can access, manage, and interpret essential information, artifacts, and images from the essays without fear of degradation.

Using technology to digitize historical information creates what is known as digital history. It offers opportunities to advance scholarly research and expand knowledge to new audiences. For example, individuals can access a digital copy of The Federalist Papers from the Library of Congress’s website anytime, from anywhere. This digital copy can still serve as a primary source because it contains the same content as the original paper version created hundreds of years ago.

As more primary and secondary sources are digitized, researchers are increasingly using artificial intelligence (AI) to search, gather, and analyze these sources. An AI method known as optical character recognition can help historians with digital research. Historians also can use AI techniques to close gaps in historical information. For example, an AI system developed by DeepMind uses deep neural networks to help historians recreate missing pieces and restore ancient Greek texts on stone tablets that are thousands of years old.

As digital tools associated with historical research proliferate, individuals seeking to advance in a history career need to develop technical skills to use advanced technology in their research. Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and critical technology skills to advance in the field of history.

Prepare to Make an Impact

Through effective historical research methods, institutions, organizations, and individuals can learn the significance of past events and communicate important insights for a better future. In museums, government agencies, universities and colleges, nonprofits, and historical associations, the combination of technology and historical research plays a central role in extending the reach of historical information to new audiences. It can also guide leaders charged with making important decisions that can impact geopolitics, society, economic development, community building, and more.

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and skills to use technology to advance their careers across many industries and fields of study. The program’s curriculum offers students the flexibility to choose from four concentrations—Public History, American History, World History, or Legal and Constitutional History—to customize their studies based on their career goals and personal interests.

Learn how Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History degree can prepare individuals for career success in the field of history.

Explore Norwich University

Your future starts here.

30+ On-Campus Undergraduate Programs
16:1 Student-Faculty Ratio
25+ Online Grad and Undergrad Programs
Military Discounts Available
22 Varsity Athletic Teams

Future Leader Camp

Join us for our challenging military-style summer camp where we will inspire you to push beyond what you thought possible:

Session I July 13 - 21, 2024
Session II July 27 - August 4, 2024

Explore your sense of adventure, have fun, and forge new friendships. High school students and incoming rooks, discover the leader you aspire to be – today.

Future Leader Camp Student Climbing Deer Leap

How to Analyze a Primary Source

When you analyze a primary source, you are undertaking the most important job of the historian. There is no better way to understand events in the past than by examining the sources — whether journals, newspaper articles, letters, court case records, novels, artworks, music or autobiographies — that people from that period left behind.

Each historian, including you, will approach a source with a different set of experiences and skills, and will therefore interpret the document differently. Remember that there is no one right interpretation. However, if you do not do a careful and thorough job, you might arrive at a wrong interpretation.

In order to analyze a primary source you need information about two things: the document itself, and the era from which it comes. You can base your information about the time period on the readings you do in class and on lectures. On your own you need to think about the document itself. The following questions may be helpful to you as you begin to analyze the sources:

Look at the physical nature of your source. This is particularly important and powerful if you are dealing with an original source (i.e., an actual old letter, rather than a transcribed and published version of the same letter). What can you learn from the form of the source? (Was it written on fancy paper in elegant handwriting, or on scrap-paper, scribbled in pencil?) What does this tell you?
Think about the purpose of the source. What was the author’s message or argument? What was he/she trying to get across? Is the message explicit, or are there implicit messages as well?
How does the author try to get the message across? What methods does he/she use?
What do you know about the author? Race, sex, class, occupation, religion, age, region, political beliefs? Does any of this matter? How?
Who constituted the intended audience? Was this source meant for one person’s eyes, or for the public? How does that affect the source?
What can a careful reading of the text (even if it is an object) tell you? How does the language work? What are the important metaphors or symbols? What can the author’s choice of words tell you? What about the silences — what does the author choose NOT to talk about?

Now you can evaluate the source as historical evidence.

Is it prescriptive — telling you what people thought should happen — or descriptive — telling you what people thought did happen?
Does it describe ideology and/or behavior?
Does it tell you about the beliefs/actions of the elite, or of “ordinary” people? From whose perspective?
What historical questions can you answer using this source? What are the benefits of using this kind of source?
What questions can this source NOT help you answer? What are the limitations of this type of source?
If we have read other historians’ interpretations of this source or sources like this one, how does your analysis fit with theirs? In your opinion, does this source support or challenge their argument?

Remember, you cannot address each and every one of these questions in your presentation or in your paper, and I wouldn’t want you to. You need to be selective.

– Molly Ladd-Taylor, Annette Igra, Rachel Seidman, and others

Source Criticism

How to analyse and evaluate historical sources

One of the most important aspects of studying history is the need to engage with historical sources.

The goal of historical source criticism is to examine the sources with a critical eye and determine their value as evidence for historical events and developments.

Reading and understanding sources require a specific set of critical thinking skills that will allow you to analyse and evaluate them.

Each skill is vitally important to doing well in the subject.

What is 'source criticism'?

Source criticism is a set of skills that allows you to think carefully about the nature of historical sources.

Rather than simply accepting what sources say, these skills help you to develop a healthy skepticism about the reasons a source was made and whether you can trust it.

There are two types of source criticism skills you can use: analysis skills and evaluation skills .

In order to help you understand how each of these skills relate to each other, they are organised in a table below.

To learn more about each of the skills, click on the hyperlinks in the tables to see more detailed explanations and examples.

Information

What is the of the source? ( )

How does this source the information from another source?

Origin

the source?

What is it?

From what is the source created?

was the source created?

What historical events that are important to the creation of this source?

Who was the of the source?

For what was this source made?

How is this source to the topic you are studying?

How is the information provided by the source?

How is the source?

Looking for revision material for source criticism?

Additional Resources

What do you need help with, download ready-to-use digital learning resources.

Contact via email

Handbook for Historians

Choosing a Paper Topic
Thesis Statement
What Sources Can I use?
Gathering sources
Find Primary Sources
Paraphrasing and Quoting Sources
How to create an Annotated Bibliography
Formatting Endnotes/Footnotes
Formatting Bibliographies
Avoiding Plagiarism

Sample History Papers

Sample title pages, outlines, & citations.

Research Paper Checklist

These are examples of well written, properly cited history papers.

Sample Paper with Outline
Judge and Langdon Book Review/Research Paper - Example 1
Judge and Langdon Book Review/Research Paper - Example 2
citation presentation
HST 302 Paper Example example of a paper for upper division History courses
HST 302 Title Page
Outline Example Example of an outline for a first year level history paper.
<< Previous: Avoiding Plagiarism
Next: Research Paper Checklist >>
Last Updated: Apr 15, 2024 10:08 AM
URL: https://resources.library.lemoyne.edu/guides/history/handbook

Competitor Analysis

Ai generator.

Competitor analysis is a critical process for businesses to understand their market position and strategic advantages. By conducting a competitor SWOT analysis , companies can identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats compared to their rivals. This analysis helps in developing effective strategies, improving market positioning, and anticipating market trends. Understanding competitors’ tactics and performance provides valuable insights that drive informed decision-making and foster competitive growth.

What is Competitor Analysis

Competitor analysis is the strategic process of evaluating the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of current and potential competitors. This analysis helps businesses understand market dynamics, improve strategies, and identify areas for growth and differentiation.

Competitor Analysis Examples

Price comparison – Analyzing competitors’ pricing strategies to adjust your own.
Product features comparison – Evaluating competitors’ product features to enhance your offerings.
Market share analysis – Assessing competitors’ market share to identify your market position.
Marketing strategies review – Studying competitors’ marketing tactics to refine your own campaigns.
Customer reviews – Analyzing competitor feedback to improve your product or service.
Website traffic analysis – Comparing website traffic data to optimize online presence.
SWOT analysis – Evaluating competitors’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
Social media monitoring – Tracking competitors’ social media activity to enhance engagement.

Types of Competitor Analysis

Direct Competitor Analysis : This analysis focuses on businesses that offer the same products or services to the same target market. By examining their strengths, weaknesses, and market strategies, you can identify opportunities to differentiate your offerings and improve your competitive position.

Indirect Competitor Analysis : Indirect competitors provide alternative solutions that meet the same customer needs. Analyzing these competitors helps you understand potential threats from different market segments and adapt your strategies accordingly.

Future Competitor Analysis : This involves identifying potential new entrants into your market. Understanding their capabilities, market potential, and possible strategies allows you to anticipate and prepare for future competition.

Competitive Market Analysis : Competitive market analysis examines the broader competitive landscape, including direct, indirect, and future competitors. This comprehensive approach helps you understand market dynamics, identify trends, and develop effective strategies to enhance your market position.

Industry Market Analysis : Industry market analysis focuses on the overall industry environment, including key players, market size, growth potential, and regulatory factors. This analysis helps you identify industry trends and opportunities, enabling you to make informed business decisions.

Competitor Analysis Tools

SWOT Analysis : Evaluates strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for strategic planning and decision-making.

Porter’s Five Forces : Assesses industry competitiveness through five key forces to determine market attractiveness and profitability using target market analysis .

Benchmarking : Compares company performance against industry leaders to identify best practices and areas for improvement.

PEST Analysis : Analyzes political, economic, social, and technological factors influencing market dynamics and strategic planning.

Competitive Profile Matrix (CPM) : Rates competitors based on key success factors to visualize competitive landscape.

Market Segmentation : Divides market into segments to identify and target specific customer groups effectively through market analysis for business .

Perceptual Mapping : Visualizes product positioning based on customer perceptions to identify market gaps and opportunities.

Customer Feedback Analysis : Gathers and analyzes customer feedback to understand market needs and improve product offerings.

Social Media Monitoring : Tracks competitors’ social media activities to gain insights into their strategies and customer engagement through a data analysis report .

Financial Ratio Analysis : Compares financial metrics to assess competitors’ financial health and performance.

Competitor Analysis in Marketing

Competitor analysis in marketing is a crucial aspect of developing a comprehensive business analysis report . This process involves examining direct and indirect competitors to understand their strengths, weaknesses, strategies, and market positions. By leveraging tools such as SWOT analysis , Porter’s Five Forces, and benchmarking, businesses can gather valuable insights into the competitive landscape. This analysis helps identify market opportunities, anticipate threats, and develop strategies to improve market positioning. Incorporating competitor analysis into a business analysis report ensures a well-rounded understanding of the market, enabling informed decision-making and strategic planning.

Competitor Analysis Framework

Identifying Competitors : Recognize direct, indirect, and potential competitors to understand the competitive landscape.
Market Positioning : Evaluate competitors’ market positions to identify strengths, weaknesses, and market gaps.
SWOT Analysis : Analyze competitors’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for strategic insights.
Product Comparison : Compare competitors’ products and services based on features, quality, and pricing.
Marketing Strategies : Assess competitors’ marketing strategies, including advertising, promotions, and customer engagement.
Financial Analysis : Review competitors’ financial health through revenue, profit margins, and market share.
Customer Feedback : Gather and analyze customer feedback on competitors to understand market perception and satisfaction.
Future Potential : Evaluate potential future threats from emerging competitors or industry trends.

Competitor Analysis UX

Competitor analysis in UX (User Experience) involves evaluating how competitors design and implement their user interfaces to attract and retain customers. This analysis includes conducting a company Swot analysis to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to user experience. By examining competitors’ website and app designs, navigation ease, and overall user satisfaction, businesses can gain valuable insights into what works well and what areas need improvement. This detailed competitor analysis in UX helps companies refine their own user interfaces, enhance customer satisfaction, and stay ahead in the market by leveraging the findings from the company SWOT analysis.

Competitor Research

Step 1: Identify Competitors : Recognize direct, indirect, and potential competitors to understand the competitive landscape comprehensively.

Step 2: Gather Data : Collect information on competitors’ products, services, marketing strategies, and customer feedback.

Step 3: Analyze Strengths and Weaknesses : Conduct SWOT analysis to determine competitors’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

Step 4: Evaluate Market Position : Assess competitors’ market positions to identify gaps and opportunities for your business.

Step 5: Monitor Competitor Activities : Continuously track competitors’ actions and strategies to stay updated and adjust your approach accordingly.

How to Use Competitor Analysis

Identify Competitors : Recognize direct, indirect, and potential competitors.
Gather Data : Collect information on competitors’ products, services, and strategies.
Conduct SWOT Analysis : Evaluate strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
Compare and Evaluate : Assess your position relative to competitors.
Develop Strategic Actions : Use competitive analysis insights to refine your business strategy.

How to Make Competitor Analysis Report:

Identify Competitors: Research and list direct and indirect competitors in your industry.
Gather Data: Collect information on competitors’ products, pricing, marketing strategies, strengths, and weaknesses.
Analyze Strengths and Weaknesses: Evaluate each competitor’s strengths and weaknesses compared to your business.
Compare Market Position: Assess your competitors’ market share, customer base, and overall market positioning through thorough competitive analysis .
Develop Strategies: Use the analysis to identify opportunities, threats, and strategies to improve your competitive advantage.

Benefits of Conducting Competitor Analysis

Identify Market Opportunities : Discover gaps in the market that your business can exploit.
Understand Competitors’ Strategies : Gain insights into competitors’ marketing, pricing, and product strategies.
Improve Business Strategies : Refine your business approach by learning from competitors’ successes and failures.
Enhance Product Development : Develop better products by understanding competitors’ strengths and weaknesses.
Increase Market Share : Implement strategies that can help you capture a larger portion of the market.
Anticipate Market Trends : Stay ahead of industry trends by observing competitors’ adaptations.
Improve Customer Satisfaction : Learn from competitors’ customer feedback to enhance your offerings.
Boost Competitive Advantage : Strengthen your market position by leveraging insights gained from competitor analysis.

Why is competitor analysis important?

It helps businesses identify market opportunities and threats.

What are the key components of competitor analysis?

Market position, product offerings, pricing strategies, and marketing tactics.

How often should a business conduct competitor analysis?

At least once a year, but more frequently in rapidly changing markets.

What tools are commonly used for competitor analysis?

Tools like SEMrush, Ahrefs, and SimilarWeb are commonly used.

What is the first step in conducting a competitor analysis?

Identifying your main competitors.

How can competitor analysis benefit marketing strategies?

It helps refine marketing tactics to better compete in the market.

What data is crucial in competitor analysis?

Sales data, market share, customer reviews, and product features.

How does competitor analysis impact product development?

It highlights gaps and opportunities for innovation.

What is a competitive advantage?

A unique strength that sets a business apart from its competitors.

How can a business use competitor analysis in pricing strategy?

By understanding competitors’ pricing, a business can adjust its prices competitively.

Text prompt

Instructive
Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

Featured Topics

Featured series.

A series of random questions answered by Harvard experts.

Explore the Gazette

Read the latest.

Police-escorted buses carry Black students to South Boston High School on the first day of federal court-ordered busing in 1974.

Boston busing in 1974 was about race. Now the issue is class.

Examining the duality of Israel

$Boy looking at tutor doing math on a chalkboard via a computer.$

One way to help big groups of students? Volunteer tutors.

History of chichén itzá written in dna.

Research using new method upends narrative on ritual sacrifices, yields discovery on resistance built to colonial-era epidemics

Christy DeSmith

Harvard Staff Writer

Photo by Johannes Krause

Read the story in Spanish.

La historia de chichén itzá escrita en el adn, un nuevo método de investigación pone en entredicho la interpretación de los sacrificios rituales y pone al descubierto la resistencia a las epidemias de la época colonial..

Durante más de 100 años, la antigua ciudad maya de Chichén Itzá ha sido fuente de fascinación arqueológica.

La arqueóloga biomolecular Christina Warinner destacó que los restos humanos descubiertos a principios del siglo XX inspiraron “relatos escabrosos” de sacrificios rituales de mujeres vírgenes. Hubo que esperar hasta principios del siglo XXI para que los investigadores reunieran suficiente evidencia, basada en análisis de restos óseos, que pusiera en dudaesta historia.

Ahora Warinner, catedrático adjunto de Ciencias Sociales John L. Loeb, y un equipo interdisciplinario internacional de científicos le han dado un vuelco a esa historia. Su investigación de vanguardia, publicada esta semana en Nature, revela que los niños, especialmente los gemelos, eran el centro de los sacrificios en la legendaria ciudad-estado. La investigación también ha arrojado luz sobre los lazos familiares y la dieta de estos niños, las epidemias de la época colonial y el paradero actual de los descendientes de Chichén Itzá.

“Este es el primer estudio que utiliza ADN antiguo, isótopos y bioarqueología para trazar una mejor imagen de lo que estaba sucediendo allí”, dijo el autor principal Rodrigo Barquera, inmunogenetista e investigador postdoctoral en el Instituto Max Planck de Antropología Evolutiva en Alemania, donde Warinner es también investigadora.

Chichén Itzá se hizo prominente alrededor del año 800 d.C., y permaneció poderosa y densamente habitada durante más de dos siglos, y sirvió como destino de peregrinaciones durante y después del período colonial español.

La arquitectura de la capital regional refleja varios estilos y evolucionó a medida que los habitantes de Chichén Itzá forjaban alianzas políticas, culturales y religiosas tanto en las cercanías como en las lejanías. Por ejemplo, El Castillo, el templo de 75 pies de altura del yacimiento, se construyó siguiendo el estilo de los toltecas, que gobernaban una zona situada a cientos de kilómetros, cerca de la actual Ciudad de México. Estas conexiones despertaron la curiosidad de Barquera sobre la procedencia de las personas enterradas a escasos metros del Cenote Sagrado, un hundimiento acuático donde se realizaban ofrendas rituales de oro, jade y vidas humanas.

“Queríamos conocer mejor a las personas que vivieron y murieron allí”, afirma Barquera. “¿Eran de la región maya? ¿De algún otro lugar de Mesoamérica? ¿O incluso de más lejos?”

Para averiguarlo, el equipo de investigación se embarcó en un análisis genético en profundidad de niños enterrados ritualmente en un chultún , o cisterna artificial, no lejos del Cenote Sagrado. Warinner señaló que los chultunes y las cuevas han sido representados durante mucho tiempo en el arte y los mitos mayas como portales al submundo. “Hay un patrón que se repite en estas estructuras subterráneas: el agua y los enterramientos de niños”, dijo Warinner.

El clima cálido y húmedo de la península de Yucatán había sido hasta ahora un factor que complicaba la investigación del ADN antiguo. Los recientes avances tecnológicos, así como la relativa estabilidad de la temperatura del chultún , que ayudó a preservar los restos óseos de los infantes, permitieron el análisis de Barquera, que decidió centrarse en el hueso de la parte petrosa del oído interno.

“Es el mejor sitio para encontrar ADN”, explicó, y añadió que centrarse en el lado izquierdo permitió a los investigadores evitar duplicados. “Tuvimos suerte de que, de los más de 100 individuos que se cree que fueron enterrados allí, pudimos recoger el hueso petroso izquierdo de 64 de ellos”.

Sacrificados en torno a los 3 o 4 años de edad, estos niños fueron enterrados en su mayoría entre los años 800 y 1.050 d.C., que fue la época de apogeo político de Chichén Itzá. Todos procedían de poblaciones mayas locales. Además, todos eran varones, con dos pares de gemelos idénticos en la muestra.

Otros análisis revelaron que al menos una cuarta parte de los varones estaban estrechamente emparentados de alguna otra manera. Pero el ADN no era lo único que tenían en común. La investigación de isótopos estables, o sea el uso de la química de huesos y dientes para investigar dietas antiguas, mostró que su alimentación era extremadamente similar, como si vivieran en la misma casa. “Esto era cierto no solo en el caso de los gemelos, sino también en el de cada grupo de individuos emparentados”, señaló Barquera.

“Parecían haber sido seleccionados por parejas”, añadió Warinner, que también señaló la importancia de los gemelos en textos sagrados mayas como el Popol Vuh. “Sugiere una actividad ritual muy específica”.

Los investigadores también estudiaron a las personas que viven actualmente en Tixcacaltuyub, situada a una hora en auto del sitio arqueológico. Los residentes de esta comunidad maya local ya trabajaban en diversas iniciativas con investigadores de la Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán. Los científicos esperaban comparar el ADN de la población con el de los antiguos niños.

La colaboración con académicos locales resultó vital, según Barquera. Estos profesionales de la salud y expertos en antropología de Yucatán le ayudaron a viajar al pueblo y le explicaron lo que esperaba conseguir el estudio del ADN antiguo. También fueron útiles las copias de “Aventuras en la ciencia arqueológica”, un libro para colorear que Warinner creó con colegas del Instituto Max Planck, ahora traducido al maya yucateco y al español.

“Los libros fueron pensados para niños, pero sirven para todos”, relató Barquera. “Muestran lo que hacemos de una manera accesible”.

Las muestras genéticas revelaron que los habitantes de Tixcacaltuyub son, de hecho, “parientes vivos cercanos de las personas enterradas en Chichén Itzá”, explicó Barquera. La comunidad estaba encantada con estos hallazgos, añadió, dada la prevalencia del racismo contra las poblaciones indígenas en México en la actualidad. Ahora pueden reivindicar sus vínculos ancestrales con las personas que construyeron la gran ciudad de Chichén Itzá.

“Hemos visto a investigadores entrar en comunidades o yacimientos arqueológicos en el pasado para tomar muestras o datos para sus trabajos sin dejar nada a cambio”, dijo Barquera, que creció en México y trabajó en varias clínicas y laboratorios de inmunología, y en la Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia de Ciudad de México antes de hacer su doctorado en Europa. “Lo que queríamos era dejar algo en compensación a la comunidad”.

El último descubrimiento del estudio se refiere al legado genético de las epidemias de la época colonial, que causaron estragos devastadores entre los mayas y otros pueblos indígenas. La historia comienza en 2006 con la tesis doctoral de Warinner sobre Teposcolula-Yucundaa, un cementerio de la región mexicana de Oaxaca asociado al brote en 1545 de una misteriosa enfermedad que los aztecas denominaron cocoliztli , o pestilencia. Se calcula que la infección mató entre 5 y 15 millones de personas, es decir, casi el 80 por ciento de la población indígena de México.

“Cambió radicalmente la población de México”, afirma Warinner. “Pero nadie sabía lo que era”.

Warinner regresó en 2018 para un estudio de ADN antiguo que identificó una forma de Salmonella enterica en individuos enterrados en el cementerio. “Hoy en día es una cepa muy rara”, afirma Warinner. “Pero ahora sabemos que estaba bastante extendida en Europa en la época del colonialismo y que probablemente se introdujo durante la conquista española”.

Por su parte, Barquera seguía trabajando en Ciudad de México a principios de la década de 2000 cuando empezó a notar un alelo recurrente, o variante genética derivada de una mutación, mientras realizaba pruebas a donantes y pacientes antes del trasplante de órganos. Recuerda que planteó el asunto a su supervisor.

“Le dije: ‘¡Esto es raro! ¿Cómo puede ser que en todo México veamos este alelo con una frecuencia tan alta? Sabíamos que tenía que venir de algún sitio. Pensamos que tal vez tenía que ver con la resistencia a algo. Pero entonces nunca llegamos a una conclusión, porque no teníamos las herramientas analíticas para probar nada”, dijo Barquera.

En el estudio de Chichén Itzá, el equipo de investigación identificó un cambio en el mismo alelo que Barquera señaló años antes. Hoy en día, dijo, la variante genética es “una de las más prominentes, si no la más prominente, en México y América Central”, pero su prevalencia resultó ser baja en los mayas de Chichén Itzá.

Análisis posteriores demostraron que la variante protegía contra la Salmonella, que Warinner y sus colegas habían relacionado con las epidemias del México del siglo XVI. “Aquí es donde las cosas realmente encajan”, dijo Warinner.

Se sabe que cocoliztli reapareció en 1576, matando a otros 2 millones de personas. “La tasa de mortalidad fue tan alta”, dijo Warinner, “que los científicos han especulado durante mucho tiempo sobre si cambió los perfiles inmunológicos de los pueblos indígenas de las Américas”.

Y ahora, dijo Warinner, el estudio de los individuos enterrados en Chichén Itzá ha revelado la respuesta inmunológica a la mortal propagación de la bacteria por el México colonial.

Después de todos estos años, sigue escrito en el ADN de la nación.

For more than 100 years, the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá has been a source of archaeological fascination.

Human remains discovered early in the 20th century inspired what biomolecular archaeologist Christina Warinner called “lurid accounts” of ritual sacrifices of female virgins. Not until the early 21st century did researchers piece together enough skeletal evidence to cast doubt on the narrative.

Chichén Itzá rose to prominence around 800 A.D., remaining powerful and populous for more than two centuries and serving as a destination for pilgrimages through and after the Spanish colonial period.

Now Warinner, the John L. Loeb Associate Professor of the Social Sciences, and an international team of genetic scientists have turned that story on its head. Their state-of-the-art research, published this week in Nature, reveals that boys — especially twins — were the focus of sacrifices in the legendary city-state. The investigation also yielded broader insights into the victims’ familial ties and diets, colonial-era epidemics, and the whereabouts of Chichén Itzá’s descendants today.

“This is the first study that uses ancient DNA, isotopes, and bioarchaeology to draw a better picture of what was going on there,” said lead author Rodrigo Barquera, an immunogeneticist and postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institutes for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, where Warinner is also a group leader.

The regional capital’s architecture reflects a number of styles and evolved as Chichén Itzáns built political, cultural, and religious alliances near and far. For instance, El Castillo, the site’s 75-foot temple, was constructed in the style of the Toltecs, who ruled an area hundreds of miles away near present-day Mexico City. Those connections piqued Barquera’s curiosity about the provenance of individuals put to rest in or near the Sacred Cenote, a watery sinkhole where ritual offerings of gold, jade, and human lives were made.

El Castillo.

“We really wanted a better picture of the people who lived and died there,” Barquera said. “Were they from the Maya region? Somewhere else in Mesoamerica? Or even farther away?”

To find out, the research team embarked upon in-depth genetic analysis of children ritually buried in a chultún, or man-made cistern, not far from the Sacred Cenote. Warinner, who is also the Sally Starling Seaver Associate Professor at Harvard Radcliffe Institute, noted that chultúns and caves have long been depicted in ancient Maya art and myths as portals to the underworld. “There’s a repeating pattern between these subterranean structures, water, and child burials,” she said.

The Yucatan Peninsula’s hot, humid weather has been a complicating factor in ancient DNA research until now. Recent technological advances as well as the chultún’s relatively temperature-stable setting, which helped preserve the victims’ skeletons, enabled Barquera’s analysis. He chose to focus on bone from the petrous portion of the inner ear.

“It’s the best site to find DNA,” he explained, adding that focusing on the left side enabled researchers to avoid duplicates. “We were lucky that out of the more than 100 individuals thought to have been buried there, we were able to collect the left petrous bone for 64 of them.”

Killed around the ages of 3 or 4, these children were mostly interred between the years 800 and 1,050 A.D., which was the era of Chichén Itzá’s political apex. All originated from local Maya populations. They also all proved to be male, with two sets of identical twins in the sample.

Further analysis revealed that at least a quarter of the boys were closely related otherwise. But DNA wasn’t all they had in common. Stable isotope research — or using the chemistry of bones and teeth to investigate ancient foods — showed their diets were extremely similar, as if they lived in the same household. “This was true not only for the twins but for each set of related individuals,” Barquera noted.

“They seemed to have been selected in pairs,” added Warinner, who also pointed to the importance of twins in Maya sacred texts like the Popol Vuh. “It suggests a very specific ritual activity.”

The researchers also studied people living today in Tixcacaltuyub, located about an hour by car from the ruins. Residents of this local Maya community were already working on various initiatives with researchers from the Autonomous University of Yucatán. Scientists hoped to compare the population’s DNA with that of the ancient children.

Tixcacaltuyub community members.

Photo by Pilar Márquez Vega

Partnering with local academics proved vital, according to Barquera. These Yucatán-based healthcare professionals and anthropology experts helped him travel to the town and explained what the ancient DNA study hoped to accomplish. Also helpful were copies of “Adventures in Archaeological Science,” a coloring book Warinner created with colleagues at the Max Planck Institute, now translated into Yucatec Maya as well as Spanish.

The community was thrilled by these findings, he added, given the prevalence of racism against Indigenous populations in Mexico today. Now they can claim ancestral ties to the people who built the great city of Chichén Itzá.

“The books were intended for kids, but they work for everyone,” Barquera offered. “They show what we do in an accessible way.”

Genetic sampling revealed that Tixcacaltuyub residents are, in fact, “close living relatives to the people buried at Chichén Itzá,” Barquera explained. The community was thrilled by these findings, he added, given the prevalence of racism against Indigenous populations in Mexico today. Now they can claim ancestral ties to the people who built the great city of Chichén Itzá.

“We have seen researchers go into communities or archaeological sites in the past to take samples or data for their papers without returning anything,” said Barquera, who grew up in Mexico and worked in various Mexico City clinics and immunology labs before pursuing his Ph.D. in Europe. “What we wanted to do was give back.”

The study’s final discovery concerns the genetic legacies of colonial-era epidemics, which exacted a devastating toll on the Maya and other Indigenous peoples. The story begins in 2006 with Warinner’s Ph.D. dissertation research on Teposcolula-Yucundaa, a cemetery in Mexico’s Oaxaca region associated with the 1545 outbreak of a mysterious illness the Aztecs termed cocoliztli , or pestilence. The infection killed an estimated 5 million to 15 million, or up to 80 percent of Mexico’s Indigenous population.

“It fundamentally changed the population of Mexico,” Warinner said. “But nobody knew what it was.”

Warinner returned in 2018 for an ancient DNA study that identified a form of Salmonella enterica in individuals buried at the cemetery. “Today it’s a very rare strain,” Warinner said. “But we now know it was quite widespread in Europe at the time of colonialism and was likely introduced during the Spanish conquest.”

For his part, Barquera was still working in Mexico City in the early 2000s when he started noticing a recurring allele, or genetic variant arising from a mutation, while conducting tests on donors and patients prior to organ transplantation. He remembers bringing the matter to his supervisor.

“I told him, ‘This is weird! How can it be that all over Mexico we see this allele in such high frequency?’ We knew it had to come from somewhere. We thought maybe it had to do with resistance to something. But back then, we never came to a conclusion, because we didn’t have the analytical tools to prove anything.”

In the Chichén Itzá study, the research team identified a shift in the very allele Barquera flagged years before. Today, he said, the genetic variant is “one of the most prominent — if not the most prominent — in Mexico and Central America,” but its prevalence proved low in the Maya of Chichén Itzá.

Subsequent analyses showed the variant was protective against Salmonella, which Warinner and colleagues had linked to the epidemics of 16th-century Mexico. “This is where things really come together,” Warinner said.

Cocoliztli is known to have reappeared in 1576, killing another 2 million people . “The mortality rate was so high,” Warinner said, “scientists have long speculated as to whether it shifted the immune profiles of Indigenous peoples of the Americas.”

And now, she said, studying individuals buried at Chichén Itzá has revealed the immunological response to the bacteria’s deadly spread across colonial Mexico.

After all these years, it remains written in the nation’s DNA.

Share this article

More than a planetary fender-bender

New study finds Earth collided with dense interstellar cloud, possibly affecting life on planet

Alzheimer’s disease indicators track with biological changes in brain, study finds

Researchers see self-reported memory loss may be early, preclinical warning

Testing fitness of aging brain

Most voters back cognitive exams for older politicians. What do they measure?

Money blog: Smoke machines deployed in Tesco; big inflation moment forecast

The Money blog brings you personal finance and consumer news, plus all the latest on the economy. Let us know your thoughts on any of the stories we're covering in the comments box below.

Tuesday 18 June 2024 21:05, UK

Big inflation moment forecast
Fury as tickets for rock band halved due to poor sales - after many had already paid hundreds
Smoke machines deployed in Tesco to fight break-ins
London overtakes Paris to become Europe's largest stock exchange

Essential reads

'One guy wanted to rent my room for a few hours to meet a friend...' What I learnt from putting my home on Airbnb
Women in Business : 'How I went from mum with no qualifications to owner of big law firm'
Money Problem : 'My fence is damaged due to weeds on my neighbour's side - but they're not interested'
Holiday money - where to buy it, how to avoid fees, and one thing you must not do
Best of the Money blog - an archive

Ask a question or make a comment

By James Sillars , business reporter

We're entering what could be the most crucial 48 hours of the election campaign for the economy.

There are two closely watched events ahead: the inflation figures for May (released early on Wednesday), followed the next day by the Bank of England's last interest rate decision before polling day.

The latter hinges on the former, in terms of potential excitement.

The consensus view is that the rate of inflation will ease back to the Bank of England's target of 2% for the first time since spring 2021.

That should be enough for the Bank of England to act the following day, you may well think. Job done?

Borrowers across the country are crying out for a rate cut after several false dawns in the fixed-rate mortgage market since we first really started talking about the prospects for rate cuts at the start of the year.

A reduction from 5.25% to 5% by the independent central bank would also be welcome for the Conservatives.

But here's where, from the view of economists and financial markets, the fairy tale for voters and the government hangs in the balance.

Even if the inflation rate hits the Bank of England's target this week, just 9% of the market currently expects the Bank of England to cut on Thursday.

That figure could change if the inflation number comes in lower than expected but the prediction is based on the future path for inflation rather than the present number.

Bank policymakers have repeatedly voiced worries over indicators showing a pick-up in the pace of price increases during the second half of the year.

They are concerned too that wage growth, running stubbornly at 6% annually at the moment, risks stoking demand in the economy and therefore inflation further.

Without these factors falling out of consideration, the majority on the rate-setting committee will likely continue to say it's too early to release the chokehold on inflation.

There is also a school of thought that the Bank would be reluctant to act during an election campaign.

So, these two events ahead are unlikely to rock the boat politically, or light up your finances to the extent the Bank of England has seen enough to fire the starting gun.

There is certainly the chance of a surprise on Thursday but it would take a pretty big shift for that pistol to light up the race for Number 10.

Doctors are calling for the drink-drive limit to be reduced to the equivalent of a small glass of wine or beer.

The limit in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is the highest in Europe at 80mg of alcohol per 100ml of blood. In Scotland it is 50mg.

The British Medical Foundation, the trade union for doctors, has said it will lobby the next government to reduce the limit to 50mg - and 20mg for new and commercial drivers.

Read the full story here ...

Grocery inflation has eased for the 16th month in a row, according to industry data released ahead of the general election.

Kantar Worldpanel - which tracks supermarket till prices, sales and market share - said its measure of grocery inflation slowed to 2.1% in the four weeks to 9 June from 2.4% the previous month.

The UK had the lowest rates of business investment out of all G7 nations for a third year in a row, a new report has claimed.

The economies of the US, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and Japan are all said to have attracted higher levels of funding from the private sector - as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) - in 2022.

The Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR), which carried out the research, said the ranking was important because investment in things like new factories, equipment and innovations helped boost economic activity, wages and household incomes.

Read the full story here ...

House buyers or renters should be familiar with being handed an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) when surveying a property.

In theory, they offer insight as to how efficient a building is - except consumer champion Which? doesn't think so.

Its experts argue that the certificates are "unreliable" and that the next government urgently needs to reform the system.

It may not seem like the end of the world - but access to grant funding, or green financial products such as loans or mortgages, is often available only to those who meet certain EPC-based criteria.

Additionally, a better EPC can make a big difference for owners, as it allows them to command a higher price if they choose to sell and may make the home more attractive to tenants.

The consumer magazine selected homeowners and booked EPC assessments on their behalf.

"Which? uncovered issues with the accuracy of the results and the recommendations that homeowners received," it said.

"Most participants (eight out of 11) told Which? their EPC did not appear to be accurate - they said the descriptions of key aspects of their home like the windows, roofs and heating systems were incorrect."

An electric vehicle company looking to rival Tesla has filed for bankruptcy amid a wider sales slump in the industry.

Fisker filed a bankruptcy petition in Delaware yesterday after after failing to secure investment, announcing weaker-than-expected earnings and plans to cut 15% of its workforce.

The company, started by James Bond car designer Henrik Fisker, announced plans in March to cut prices by as much as 39%, while its share price has plummeted by 99% in recent days.

This comes as electric vehicle sales in the US and Europe continue to drop.

Smoke machines are the latest gadgets being introduced into supermarket shops to fight crime.

Tesco has deployed them in some stores to stop thieves breaking in after-hours, Sky News understands.

The 4ft security machines - arranged on the shop floor after closing - fill the room with a dense fog if motion detectors are tripped.

"Warning: You're being watched. Smoke screen security fog in operation," reads a message on the front of the device, which is fitted with a CCTV camera.

Sky News understands the unit pictured above was not plugged in and has been removed after being mistakenly left out during opening times.

While the deterrent has been rolled out in some high-risk branches, they are not part of a universal policy.

A customer who saw the device said: "The size and visibility of the machine, along with the prominent camera, and the pair of eyes and 'We're watching you' decals, highlight its use as yet another part of the culture of fear visited on the most vulnerable in our society during this cost of living crisis."

Tesco has declined to comment.

Basically... it's a little "what it says on the tin", but an interest-only mortgage is an agreement where you pay only the interest owed on your loan each month.

Popular in the 1980s and 90s, and peaking just before the 2008 financial crisis, interest-only mortgages benefit those who are trying to keep their monthly payments down in the short term.

How does an interest-only mortgage work?

You only pay off the interest on the amount you borrow - not the loan itself.

This differs from more common repayment mortgages which see you pay off the interest and some of the capital on your home each month, eventually leading to the mortgage being paid off at the end of the term.

With interest-only, you'll have to pay off the total amount borrowed in full at the end of your mortgage term using savings, investments or other assets.

You can also find temporary arrangements if you are struggling financially.

Example: You're looking at a house which requires you to borrow £100,000 over 25 years with a fixed interest rate of 3.5%.

Imagining this interest rate stays the same for the whole term, on a repayment mortgage plan your monthly cost would be £501 , while on interest-only it would be significantly lower at £292 .

The interest-only option is great for those who want to keep their outgoings in check - but it does mean that, as the capital isn't being paid down, the amount of interest ends up being higher than on the full repayment plan.

Therefore someone on an interest-only deal would owe £187,579 (£87,579 interest plus £100,000 loan capital outstanding), while a repayment deal would see them pay back £150,238 (£100,000 loan capital fully paid off plus £50,238 interest).

How easy are they to come by?

As we touched on earlier, prior to the 2008 financial crisis interest-only mortgages were much easier to get hold of - some 40% of all mortgages taken out were interest-only around this time.

But the crash revealed that many loans were at risk with customers who would struggle to pay off the full loan later down the line.

Affordability criteria were introduced as a result, which caused their popularity to sharply decline. It's now quite difficult to borrow on an interest-only basis, with not all lenders offering them as an option.

Those that do will have strict terms, such as a high deposit and an approved plan to pay the loan back at the end of the term.

Research by the Financial Conduct Authority in August last year revealed that the number of interest-only and part-interest-only mortgages had halved since 2015.

What are the benefits?

The biggie with interest-only mortgages is the reduced monthly payments, which can provide you with a financial safety net if you go through times when you're earning less.

There's also a chance that if you're in your property for a long time, you could sell it for more than you paid for it, meaning you've built up equity to help you pay off the lump sump.

What about the downsides?

You're not paying off any of the loan as you go, meaning you're not building up that equity that you would do with a repayment mortgage. You'll also end up paying more interest due to not making a dent in the capital.

Interest-only also means you need a solid plan for paying it off at the end of the term - this may include constant monitoring of investments and being strict with yourself to ensure you're putting money aside. With a repayment plan you don't need to think about this element.

Read other entries in our Basically series...

An invitation-only "Diamond" Deliveroo subscription has launched, offering priority delivery, dedicated customer care teams and access to restaurants unavailable to other consumers.

For £19.99 per month, users get 10% credit back on orders of £30 or more and an on-time promise - meaning if an order arrives more than 15 minutes late, customers get their money back.

Only the very top users of the app will be invited to subscribe - with members estimated to spend three times as much as regular customers and twice as likely to try a restaurant that was new to the platform.

"The enhanced loyalty programme will play an important role in driving growth for Deliveroo," the company said.

A London fish and chip shop has been named in the top 100 best cheap eats in Europe.

The Mayfair Chippy comes in at 87 in the respected Opinionated About Dining list - which is widely shared by top chefs and which draws conclusions based on tens of thousands of reviews from foodies.

As far as chippies go, Mayfair isn't actually that cheap - a cod and chips will set you back over £19...

The top UK entry is bakery Fabrique at 25 - and most things in its central London branches cost less than a fiver.

Pollen Bakery in Manchester, where you can easily eat for less than £10, is at 54 - with St John's Bakery (Neals Yard), in London, famous for its donuts, is at 57.

Jolene bakery in Newington Green, London, which has a daily changing menu, is at 59 - ahead of ramen joint Kanada-Ya, which has branches in Angel, Soho and Covent Garden.

Lots of other London eateries make the lower end of the top 100 - which is topped by Oslo coffee bar Tim Wendelboe.

What's your favourite cheap eat across the UK? Tell us in the comments box and we may follow this up later

By Daniel Binns, business reporter

The stock market in London has crept up slightly this morning as investors wait for tomorrow's inflation data - followed by Thursday's interest rate decision by the Bank of England.

The figures will be the last major economic indicators to be released ahead of July's general election.

Commentators expect inflation to fall to the Bank's target of 2% on Wednesday, according to a poll of economists by Reuters.

While an interest rate cut is not expected this week, the forecast drop in inflation will help pave the way for a rate cut in August, experts say.

Fiona Cincotta, a senior market analyst at City Index, said investors were keenly waiting for tomorrow's data - but said there was a "sense of optimism".

Overall, the FTSE 100 is up almost 0.4% this morning, while the FTSE 250 has increased by just over 0.5%.

Among the top gainers is Whitbread, which owns brands such as Premier Inn. The hospitality firm is up nearly 4% after reporting its results for the first quarter.

Whitbread said sales rose 1% to £739m and that its performance was in line with expectations.

At the other end of the scale, industrial equipment rental company Ashtead Group has slipped nearly 4% after the firm downgraded its growth forecast.

On the currency markets, £1 buys $1.27 US or €1.18, similar to Monday.

The cost of oil is up this morning, with a barrel of Brent Crude priced at almost $84 (£66).

Be the first to get Breaking News

Install the Sky News app for free

IMAGES

Historical Analysis -- Sample 4
Historical analysis of recent events Research Paper
Historical Research
10+ Historical Research Examples in PDF
Historical Source Analysis Presentation, Lesson Plan, Worksheet Resource
(PDF) HISTORICAL RESEARCH: A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

VIDEO

Historical Research 101
Lec 1
History Research Papers: Structure and Components
So You're Thinking of Majoring in History
Football's Biggest Butterfly Effects
Historical Research in Education |For M.Ed (Advance Educational Research)| By Anil Kashyap

COMMENTS

Historical Research
It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis. Comparative Research. This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. ... Here are some examples of when historical research might be ...
What is Historical Analysis?
The principal goal of students in history classes and historians in practice is to master the process of Historical Analysis. History is more than a narrative of the past; the discipline cares less for the who, what, where, and when of an event, instead focusing on how and why certain events unfolded the way they did and what it all means. History is about argument, interpretation, and ...
Historical Research
For effective execution of the data collection and analysis for historical research in education and other fields, you will need a strong research design that includes the following stages. 1. Data Collection ... 10+ Historical Research Examples. Now, you know the elements to include in your research. Let's take a look at how researchers ...
A Pragmatic Guide to Qualitative Historical Analysis in the Study of
Published by Blackwell Publishing, 350 Main Street, Maiden, MA 02148, USA, and 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK. 352 Pragmatic Guide to Qualitative Historical Analysis. In particular, this essay will focus on the analysis of primary and secondary sources for use in qualitative international relations research.
3. Historical Analysis and Interpretation
HISTORICAL THINKING STANDARD 3. The student engages in historical analysis and interpretation: Therefore, the student is able to: Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences. Consider multiple perspectives of various peoples in the past by ...
PDF Methods of Analysis Historical Analysis
History-as-record consists of the documents and memorials pertaining to history-as-actuality on which written-history is or should be based. (p. 5) All three lend themselves to cliché yet despite this familiarity, or perhaps because of this, non-historians struggle with historical understanding and analysis. History teachers consistently
1.2: What is Historical Analysis?
History is about argument, interpretation, and consequence. To complete quality historical analysis—that is, to "do history right"-one must use appropriate evidence, assess it properly (which involves comprehending how it is related to the situation in question), and then draw appropriate and meaningful conclusions based on said evidence.
Introduction to Historical Research : Home
This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research. It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).
PDF The Stages of Historical Analysis
Step Three: (2-3 minutes) Have a volunteer read the first stage, and then lead a discussion asking students to evaluate the quality of the analysis. It won't take much nudging for them to realize that the analysis is incomplete. Step Four: (15 minutes) Select different volunteers to read remaining stages, and be ready to help interpret the ...
Comparative Historical Analysis, A Methodological Perspective
Comparative historical analysis is concerned with causal analysis, an emphasis on processes over time, and the use of systematic and contextualized comparison (Mahoney and Rueschemeyer 2003a).. Comparative historical analysis is a field of research characterized by the use of systematic comparison and the analysis of processes over time to explain large-scale outcomes such as revolutions ...
Historical method
Historical method is the collection of techniques and guidelines that historians use to research and write histories of the past. Secondary sources, primary sources and material evidence such as that derived from archaeology may all be drawn on, and the historian's skill lies in identifying these sources, evaluating their relative authority, and combining their testimony appropriately in order ...
Historical Research Approaches to the Analysis of ...
Historical research methods and approaches can improve understanding of the most appropriate techniques to confront data and test theories in internationalisation research. A critical analysis of all "texts" (sources), time series analyses, comparative methods across time periods and space, counterfactual analysis and the examination of outliers are shown to have the potential to improve ...
Historical Research
We conduct historical research for a number of reasons: - to avoid the mistakes of the past. - to apply lessons from the past to current problems. - to use the past to make predictions about the present and future. - to understand present practices and policies in light of the past. - to examine trends across time.
A Step by Step Guide to Doing Historical Research
For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex.
Historical Research
In historical research, a researcher collects and analyse the data, and explain the events that occurred in the past to test the truthfulness ... What is Content Analysis - Steps & Examples . Content analysis is used to identify specific words, patterns, concepts, themes, phrases, or sentences within the content in the recorded communication.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH: A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
Besides that, some examples of research using historical research methods will be presented as well. 2.0 Historical Research Historical research can be defined as the process of investigating past events systematically to provide an account of happenings in the past (Historical Research, n.d.). ... and the analysis of evidence gathered from ...
3. Historical Analysis and Interpretation
Standard Three: Historical Analysis and Interpretation. Identify the author or source of the historical document or narrative. Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences. Differentiate between historical facts and historical interpretations but ...
Research Guides: HIS 250: Historical Methods: Home
Historical researchers often use documentary, biographical, oral history, and archival methods, in addition to many of the methods commonly used across the social sciences.Historical research is often concerned with topics related to social change over time and data can take many forms, including photographs and secondary data and documents from a range of official and academic sources.
How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical
For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women's voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform. ... Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different ...
How to Analyze a Primary Source
In order to analyze a primary source you need information about two things: the document itself, and the era from which it comes. You can base your information about the time period on the readings you do in class and on lectures. On your own you need to think about the document itself. The following questions may be helpful to you as you begin ...
How to analyse and evaluate historical sources
The goal of historical source criticism is to examine the sources with a critical eye and determine their value as evidence for historical events and developments. Reading and understanding sources require a specific set of critical thinking skills that will allow you to analyse and evaluate them. Each skill is vitally important to doing well ...
Sample Papers
Sample Title Pages, Outlines, & Citations. citation presentation. HST 302 Paper Example. example of a paper for upper division History courses. HST 302 Title Page. Outline Example. Example of an outline for a first year level history paper. Library Hours: 8am - 9pm.
(PDF) Historical Research: A Thematic Analysis of Convention and
A systematic method of data analysis for oral history research, based on common qualitative data analysis methods, has been suggested as the result of this article. ... Examples arc such ...
Competitor Analysis
Benefits of Conducting Competitor Analysis. Identify Market Opportunities: Discover gaps in the market that your business can exploit. Understand Competitors' Strategies: Gain insights into competitors' marketing, pricing, and product strategies. Improve Business Strategies: Refine your business approach by learning from competitors ...
History of Chichén Itzá written in DNA
The Yucatan Peninsula's hot, humid weather has been a complicating factor in ancient DNA research until now. Recent technological advances as well as the chultún's relatively temperature-stable setting, which helped preserve the victims' skeletons, enabled Barquera's analysis. He chose to focus on bone from the petrous portion of the ...
Money blog: Smoke machines deployed in Tesco; big inflation moment
The Money blog brings you personal finance and consumer news, plus all the latest on the economy. Let us know your thoughts on any of the stories we're covering in the comments box below.

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research

Types of Historical Research

Descriptive Research

Analytical Research

Comparative Research

Interpretive Research

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Data Collection Methods

Data Analysis Methods

Historical Research Methodology

Applications of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research

Purpose of Historical Research

When to use Historical Research

Characteristics of Historical Research

Advantages of Historical Research

Limitations of Historical Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

You may also like

Original Research – Definition, Examples, Guide

Documentary Research – Types, Methods and...

Scientific Research – Types, Purpose and Guide

Artistic Research – Methods, Types and Examples

Humanities Research – Types, Methods and Examples

2 What is Historical Analysis?

Share This Book

Margin Size

1.2: What is Historical Analysis?

Introduction to Historical Research : Home

Subject-Specialist Librarians

Ask a Librarian

Other helpful guides

Historical Research Approaches to the Analysis of Internationalisation

Cite this article

Similar content being viewed by others

Developing theoretically informed typologies in international business: Why we need them, and how to do it

Bridging History and Reductionism: A Key Role for Longitudinal Qualitative Research

Asynchronicities of growth: a process extension to the Uppsala model of internationalisation

1 Introduction

1.1 Historical Research Approaches: The Challenge of Different Underlying Philosophies

2 Research Methods

2.1 Source Criticism

2.2 Analysing Sequences, Time Series and Processes

2.3 Comparative Methods

2.4 Counterfactual Analysis

3 Discussion

3.1 Historical Research Approaches and the Internationalisation Process

3.2 A New Concept of Internationalisation

4 Conclusion: The Response to the Challenge of Historical Research

Acknowledgments

Author information

Corresponding author

Rights and permissions

About this article

Share this article

Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Tips to Collect Data

Step 2- Collect the Data

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

External Criticism :

Internal Criticism :

Step 5 – Present your Findings

Build Arguments and Narrative

Organise your Argument

Proofread, Revise and Edit

Are you looking for professional research writing services?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Frequently Asked Questions

You May Also Like

HISTORICAL RESEARCH: A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

Related Papers