mung bean biology experiment

Using Mung Beans in the Lab

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Age Ranges:

Mung beans are cheap, reliable and easy to germinate, and offer a useful way to look at the germination process.

• Plant growth : Using hydroponics to explore what plants need to grow. Resource:  What do plants need to grow?
• Enzymes : Resource:  Phosphatase enzymes in plants
• Idea : Explore whether bean roots always grow downwards
• Idea : Investigate the effect of light on growing seedlings
• Idea : Investigate the effect of water on growing seeedlings
• Idea : Observing sprouting mung bean  root hair  cells

Teaching Topics

• Plant Growth
• Plant Nutrition
• Hydroponics

Description

Mung Beans,  Vigna radiata

Mung beans are legumes (members of the  Fabaceae  family), and are most commonly used in the UK for growing nutritious bean sprouts. Mung beans are annuals, growing up to about 1m in height. The first flowers appear seven to eight weeks after planting and the crop reaches maturity in 12 to 14 weeks. The mung bean plant comes originally from India, but is now widespread throughout the tropics.

Growing and sourcing

Obtaining : Buy fresh seeds from suppliers including Blades Biological. Seeds must be fresh to germinate.

Propagating : Germinate from seeds. This  video  demonstrates the germination of mung beans with both  cotyledons  and roots visible. As demonstrated in the film, mung beans can be planted in a clear tank using a seed compost to observe root formation.

Compost : Use a  seed compost  for germinating these seeds.

Light : Light is needed only once the cotyledons are ready to open. A windowsill is suitable.

Water : Keep damp without soaking.

Temperature : A warm room is suitable.

Feeding : There’s no need to feed these seedlings.

Notes : Look out for signs of ‘Damping-off” in your seedlings.

• Agriculture and farming
• Cells and tissues
• Nutrient cycles
• Photosynthesis
• Plant growth
• Plant nutrition
• Plant reproduction
• Plant responses
• Respiration
• Plants in the Science Curriculum

Related content

Teaching resources.

• Student Sheet 5 - Investigating Seed Germination
• How Science Works - What do plants need to grow?
• Using Broad Beans in the Lab
• Engage your students with enzymes

Curricular Materials to Accompany the McIntosh Apple Development Poster Distributed by the Education Committee of the Botanical Society of America Posted March 2001

Grade Levels: 6-8; 9-12

• Create a hypothesis about the effects of light and volume on the growth of mung bean sprouts.
• Observe, describe, and measure growth in mung bean sprouts.
• Record seedling growth in tabular form.
• Analyze data by calculating and graphing average seedling growth rates.
• Draw conclusions from results about the relationships between environment and growth in mung bean sprouts.

Background :     A seed contains its own life support system.  When stimulated to germinate, seeds use stored food reserves to grow into sprouts.  A sprout is a tender, often edible, seedling that is produced following seed germination.  As the sprout begins to develop and use up its stored reserves, the seedling needs light and carbon dioxide to continue growth.     In this experiment, students will examine how the amount of carbon dioxide and light changes the growth of a mung bean's sprout.  The equation of photosynthesis shows the relationships among carbon dioxide, light, and growth:

6 CO 2 + 12 H 2 O --- light ----> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 + 6 H 2 O .

In this expression, C 6 H 12 O 6 represents simple sugars that are used by the plant for energy and structural materials like wood.  In other words, they are required for growth.  Carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) is necessary for plants to form those simple sugars.  Plants have the capacity to use CO 2 from the atmosphere for this purpose.  If students experimentally vary the amount of available carbon dioxide or light, they can observe their effects on plant growth.  In this exercise, seedlings are grown in plastic soda bottles.  The amount of CO 2 varies with the volume of the bottle and light is manipulated using aluminum foil.  Additional volume will allow the seedlings to grow to a greater size.      Light will have different effects depending on how long the sprouts are allowed to grow.  In all cases, sprouts grown in low light will be longer than sprouts grown in more intense light.  However, after the food reserves available in the seed are used up, a plant grown in the dark will cease to grow and will be outgrown by the plants grown in the light.     In addition to reinforcing plant science content, this lab expects students to apply the scientific method.  After learning basic information about growth and photosynthesis, students formulate a hypothesis about the growth of their mung bean sprouts in different treatments.  After they have gathered and compiled the data,  students will compare their experimental results to their original hypothesis and draw appropriate conclusions.

• Several 0.5, 1, and 2 Liter empty, clean, and clear plastic soda bottles.  Rinse the bottles, but do not wash them in detergent which may inhibit seed germination or growth
• 10 mung bean seeds per student (Mung beans are available in most large grocery stores.  However, if they are not, other peas or beans will work fine)
• paper towels
• aluminum foil
• metric rulers
• After giving the students information about plant growth, have them write a hypothesis about the relationship between the experimental variables and plant growth.
• Assign students to a soda bottle size (0.5, 1, or 2 Liter).  There should be equal numbers of each size soda bottle distributed among the class. 
• Have students place 10 mung beans in their soda bottle.
• Each student should rip one paper towel into several pieces (approximately 1 inch by 1 inch) and place them in their soda bottle.
• Students should fill the cap of their soda bottle with water and pour the water into the soda bottle.  No more than this amount of water is required.
• Securely tighten the cap and do not reopened during the experiment.
• Assign the students to light and dark treatments.  Each size bottle should have at least two light and two dark treatments.
• Record the treatments.
• Cover dark treatment soda bottles with aluminum foil.
• Place all bottles near the windowsill so the light treatments will receive sunlight.  Keep both light and dark treatments to maintain as equal environments within them as possible.  However, note that light treatments will be exposed to higher temperatures.
• Each day, have the students measure and record the length of the sprouts to the nearest mm using a metric ruler.  Record the length of five sprouts and calculate the average.  Record this information.  Students will record data for 10 days. 
• At the end of each recording for the day, have the students calculate averages for each treatment.
• After 10 days, create a line graph with the x-axis representing time in days and the y-axis growth in length.  Use a different line showing averages for each of the treatments.  There should be a total of 6 lines.
• Have students draw conclusions from their data and results.  They should compare their experimental results to their original hypothesis.  If their hypotheses are not supported by their results, encourage students to explore reasons for the lack of support.  Do the results lead to new hypotheses?  Students (and scientists) learn from experiments that seem to have failed because hypotheses are not supported.  Hypothesis testing involves an evaluation of the causes of patterns and observations.  One is not always correct about those causes at the outset.

References :

Introductory plant biology books will discuss germination and growth of seedlings.  Several are listed below. 

Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. 1998. Biology of Plants . Worth Publishers Inc., New York. Stern, Kingsley R. 2000.  Introductory Plant Biology , 8th ed. McGraw Hill, Dubuque, IA. Uno, Gordon, R. Storey, and R. Moore 2001.  Principles of Botany , 1st ed. McGraw Hill, Dubuque, IA. Burnie, David. 2000. Plant. Dorling Kindersley Eyewitness Books, New York.

For more information about sprouts see the International Sprout Growers Association

This activity is based on an exercise presented by Ken Blom, Niskayuna School District, Niskayuna, NY and was developed and edited by Amy Russel and Steven Rice, Department of Biological Sciences, Union College, Schenectady, NY.

Bean Beetles

A model organism for inquiry-based undergraduate laboratories, using bean beetles to teach experimental design and experimental variables.

• Student Handout
• Instructor Notes
• Student Data

This lab module provides introductory biology majors scaffolded-instruction in experimental design. Students entering college know the steps of the scientific method, but many have not had the chance to apply them in a laboratory setting. Students lack the skills to design a controlled experiment and do not understand the importance of experimental variables. To address this problem we chose to conduct guided-inquiry labs using bean beetles. Since most students had never done extensive research, nor had the library skills to do so, we choose to provide students with a list of questions and observations about the life or behavior of bean beetles. Students were asked to pick one on which they would base their experimental design.

Topic: Application of the scientific method, experimental design, experimental variables Level: Introductory majors Class Time: The basic set up for this lab module takes two lab periods, but data collection could last for several weeks after. Learning Objectives: To formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test your hypothesis Communicate hypothesis and experimental design to your peers

Allison D'Costa and Mark Schlueter

Georgia Gwinnett College, Lawrenceville, GA 30043

• To formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test your hypothesis.
• Communicate hypothesis and experimental design to your peers.

BEAN BEETLE EXPERIMENT

Goal: To formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test your hypothesis.

Today, each lab group will choose one of the following observations and questions to pursue further. Next week, you will perform an experiment designed by you to test the question that you have chosen to investigate. Prior to beginning the experiment, each group will give a 5 minute presentation on their question, hypothesis and the experiment that was designed by the group.

OBSERVATIONS AND QUESTIONS ABOUT BEAN BEETLES

Males are driven to find females and mate with them. Typically, males find females and begin mating in 15 minutes in small containers. Male beetles have been observed attempting to mate with other male beetles.

• What senses do males use to find their mates?
• Does mating decrease or increase a beetle's lifespan?
• Does the presence of females reduce or increase the attempts of male-to-male mating attempts?
• Does the presence of extra male beetles increase or decrease the time it takes to successfully mate with a female beetle?

It is claimed that adult bean beetles do not need to eat or drink.

• Would beetle lifespan increase in the presence of food?
• Do beetles survive longer in the presence of light or in the presence of dark?

Females prefer to lay eggs on their natal bean (the bean from which they emerge).

• Are female beetles picky about the size of natal bean?
• Are female beetles picky about whether an egg has already been laid on a natal bean?
• Will females lay eggs on beans without a seed coat?
• What makes the natal bean attractive to the female - its color or shape?

Supplies Available

• Virgin Male and Female Beetles
• Non-virgin Male and Female Beetles
• Mung Beans (natal bean) with seed coat, Mung bean without seed coat, Mung Beans with eggs
• Others Bean Types (Adzuki beans, Black-eye peas, Chick-peas, Black Beans)
• Water, Yeast, Fruit Fly media
• Petri Dishes, Scissors, Microscopes, Electronic Balances
• Beetle "storage" areas include: (a) cool area (b) warm area (c) dark area (d) light area

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

You need to answer each of these questions in your experiment design paper. This paper is due at the beginning of lab. Each group will give a five minute presentation on their question and the experiment they will perform to answer that question.

• State your question (or reword the question).
• State your purpose.
• State your hypothesis.
• List your variables.
• What is your independent variable?
• What is your dependent variable(s)?
• What is your controlled variable (s)?
• Design your experiment.
• What materials or organisms will you need? How many?
• Write out a step by step procedure.
• Consult your "Available Supply List"
• Remember to include a control group
• Remember to include replicates in your experimental design
• Statistics might be useful (e.g. t-test, ANOVA)

This experiment was written by A. D'Costa and M. Schlueter.  

Copyright © by Allison D'Costa and Mark Schlueter , 2014. All rights reserved. The content of this site may be freely used for non-profit educational purposes, with proper acknowledgement of the source. All other uses are prohibited without prior written permission from the copyright holders.

1st lab period.

1) Introduce the bean beetle to students.

A brief (10-15 minutes) lecture introduces students to the bean beetle. Photographs are used to train the students to recognize this species and identify the sexes (Blumer & Beck, 2011). The bean beetle's life cycle (egg -larva -pupa -adult) is discussed. Next, students are given Petri dishes containing beetles growing on mung beans and are trained how to observe and handle the beetles.

2) Engage the students in experimental design and data analysis using a previously set-up experiment.

Following the introduction, a brainstorming session is facilitated. The whole class participates in the design of a controlled experiment to answer the question "If given a choice of various bean types, do beetles prefer to lay their eggs on the bean type from which they hatched (natal bean)?" ( Beck & Blumer ).

The entire class works together to formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment to test it. The class defines the control group, experimental group, independent variable, dependent variable, and controlled variables and decides the number of replicates that are appropriate. The instructor then provides the class with the results of the previously set-up experiment. Students tally the data and make conclusions on whether the data support or reject the hypothesis that was developed. The lab is concluded with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the experiment.

Experimental setup: The instructor sets up the experiment as follows, a week before the laboratory. This will provide "real data" for students to tally while in the lab. To set up, place three virgin male beetles and three virgin female beetles hatched from mung beans (natal bean) into Petri dishes containing an equal number of mung, adzuki, and black-eyed peas (10 beans each) for about 1 week. A week later the plates are ready for the students to tally the number of eggs on each bean type to determine whether the beetles had a preference for their natal bean or not.

3. Student groups choose a question and design their own experiment with appropriate sample sizes and controls.

Students are divided into groups of four and are told that they will perform their own group experiment during the next lab period. They are provided a list of bean beetle observations and questions, as well as a list of materials that will be available for their use (see Student handouts ).

2nd lab period.

4) Students present experimental design to peers and perform the experiment in class.

As each group presents, the instructor and peers make recommendations. The students set up their experiment and, in the next few weeks, gather data and make conclusions on whether their data support or reject their hypothesis. Students are asked to reflect on how they could improve their experiment. Each student writes a laboratory report.

Preparation:

Fresh cultures of bean beetles can be obtained from Carolina Biological Supply. Stocks are made by growing the beetles to sufficient numbers in mason jars containing whole mung beans (or other bean type) covered with mesh. After 4-6 weeks at room temperature (or 3-4 weeks at 30°C), new beetles will emerge in large numbers, and they are ready to divide further. Stocks in mason jars should be replenished with fresh beans every 4-6 months. Because bean beetles are potential agricultural pests, the old cultures should be placed in a freezer for 4 days and then thrown in the trash.

To obtain virgin females and males, add fresh mung beans to a Petri dish along with several males and females. Allow females to lay eggs for several days. Beans with a single egg must be isolated (for example, each placed in a well of a 12-well plate), so that when the adult hatches, it remains a virgin.

Data collection:

Observation (from student handout): It is claimed that adult bean beetles do not need to eat or drink.

Question: Would adding suitable food or water increase the life span of the adult bean beetle?

Hypothesis: If food or water was provided, adult bean beetles would live longer.

Control group: 2 males and 2 females in empty Petri dish, no beans/ food/ water

Experimental group A: 2 males and 2 females placed in Petri dish containing fruit fly media

Experimental group B: 2 males and 2 females placed in Petri dish containing some yeast

Experimental group C: 2 males and 2 females placed in Petri dish containing whole mung beans

Experimental group D: 2 males and 2 females placed in Petri dish containing natal beans

Experimental group E: 2 males and 2 females placed in Petri dish containing naked beans (seed coat removed)

Independent variable: The food item or water given to the beetle

Dependent variable: Lifespan of the beetle measured in days

Controlled variables: Equal number of newly emerged males and females, all placed at the same temperature in a lab drawer.

Experimental Design:

There will be 6 groups (1 control and 5 experimental A, B, C, D, E). Each group will have 3 replicates, or 3 Petri dishes. Petri dishes will be stored in a lab drawer at room temperature. Each group will be checked every day around the same time and the number of dead beetles will be recorded. The experiment ends when all the beetles are dead.

Data analysis:

Students were introduced to t-test. Some data required ANOVA which was conducted by the instructor (see Student data ).

References:

Beck, C.W. & L.S. Blumer. Natal Bean Discrimination by Bean Beetles. http://www.beanbeetles.org/new_website/wp-content/protocols/natal_preference/

Blumer, L.S. & Beck, C.W. (2011). Bean beetles: a model organism for inquiry-based undergraduate laboratories. www.beanbeetles.org .

D'Costa, A.R. & Schlueter, M.A. (2013). Scaffolded instruction improves student understanding of the scientific method & experimental design. American Biology Teacher, 75, 18-28.

Schlueter M.A. & D'Costa, A.R. (2013). Guided Inquiry Lab using Bean Beetles for Teaching the Scientific Method and Experimental Design. American Biology Teacher, 75, 214-218.

Sample Student Product

THE EFFECT OF FOOD ON ADULT BEAN BEETLE (CALLOSOBRUCHUS MACULATUS) SURVIVAL: DOES FEEDING INCREASE THE LIFESPAN?

1) Introduction to beetles, & why they are easy to study

Bean Beetles ( Callosobruchus maculatus ) are common agricultural pests found in the tropics and subtropics of both Africa and Asia. Bean beetle larvae feed and develop exclusively inside the seed of legumes (Fabaceae).

They have a rapid life cycle that includes a 10-14 day adult stage. It is currently believed that adult bean beetles do not feed after the larva stage, focusing only on reproduction as an adult. The main purpose of this study was to determine whether food would increase the lifespan of adult bean beetles.

2) Your question

THE EFFECT OF FOOD ON ADULT BEAN BEETLE (CALLOSOBRUCHUS MACULATES) SURVIVAL: DOES FEEDING INCREASE THE LIFESPAN?

3) Details of expt: how you collected virgins, set up, etc.

First, we allowed males and females to mate in a large petri dish full of mung beans. The females laid eggs on the beans. Beans that held the purest white egg(s) were collected and placed individually in 24-well plates, where the bean beetle larvae will grow and hatch from their natal bean as either a virgin male or virgin female. The day that each bean beetle hatched was recorded, and then the main procedure began for that bean beetle. Each bean beetle was randomly designated to one of the 6 experimental food groups as one of the 5 replicates. All of the bean beetles were contained in petri dishes under their specific conditions. Once a bean beetle was added to the experiment, his or her lifespan was observed, recorded, and analyzed.

The experiment was set up with six different food groups, which were labeled as the following: 1) No food (Control group), 2) Fruit fly media, 3) Yeast, 4) Sugar water, 5) Natal bean, and 6) Naked beans. Each group consisted of five Petri dishes, of which contained five replicates of 1 male, 2 males, 1 female, 2 females, and 1 male with 1 female, respectively. (The experimental procedure is expanded and written out in more detail below.)

Project Plan "Experimental Set-up" (Full Detail)

Food Group 1 - Nothing (control group) Dish 1 - 1 male (5 replicates 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E) Dish 2 - 2 males (5 replicates 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E) Dish 3 - 1 female (5 replicates 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D, 3E) Dish 4 - 2 females (5 replicates 4A, 4B, 4C, 4D, 4E) Dish 5 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E) Food Group 2 - Fruit Fly Media (soak with water) Dish 6 - 1 male (5 replicates 6A, 6B, 6C, 6D, 6E) Dish 7 - 2 males (5 replicates 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E) Dish 8 - 1 female (5 replicates 8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, 8E) Dish 9 - 2 females (5 replicates 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E) Dish 10 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E) Food Group 3 - Yeast (soak with water) Dish 11 - 1 male (5 replicates 11A, 11B, 11C, 11D, 11E) Dish 12 - 2 males (5 replicates 12A, 12B, 12C, 12D, 12E) Dish 13 - 1 female (5 replicates 13A, 13B, 13C, 13D, 13E) Dish 14 - 2 females (5 replicates 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E) Dish 15 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 15A, 15B, 15C, 15D, 15E) Food Group 4 - Whole Beans Dish 16 - 1 male (5 replicates 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E) Dish 17 - 2 males (5 replicates 17A, 17B, 17C, 17D, 17E) Dish 18 - 1 female (5 replicates 18A, 18B, 18C, 18D, 18E) Dish 19 - 2 females (5 replicates 19A, 19B, 19C, 19D, 19E) Dish 20 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 20E) Food Group 5 - Natal Bean Dish 21 - 1 male (5 replicates 21A, 21B, 21C, 21D, 21E) Dish 22 - 2 males (5 replicates 22A, 22B, 22C, 22D, 22E) Dish 23 - 1 female (5 replicates 23A, 23B, 23C, 23D, 23E) Dish 24 - 2 females (5 replicates 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, 24E) Dish 25 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 25A, 25B, 25C, 25D, 25E) Food Group 6 - Naked Beans (seed coat removed) Dish 26 - 1 male (5 replicates 26A, 26B, 26C, 26D, 26E) Dish 27 - 2 males (5 replicates 27A, 27B, 27C, 27D, 27E) Dish 28 - 1 female (5 replicates 28A, 28B, 28C, 28D, 28E) Dish 29 - 2 females (5 replicates 29A, 29B, 29C, 29D, 29E) Dish 30 - 1 male and 1 female (5 replicates 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E)

4) Raw data: Please see Excel sheet

Student Handout [ pdf ] [ docx ]

Instructor's Notes [ pdf ] [ docx ]

Sample Student Product [ pdf ] [ docx ]

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The effect of phosphate on the enzyme phosphatase

Produced by Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS), this investigation looks at end-product inhibition of the enzyme phosphatase. 

The investigation is designed for students following a Scottish Highers course but it is equally useful for other post-16 courses in biology. 

This investigation involves an acid phosphatase extracted from germinating mung beans (beansprouts). A simple aqueous extract is used as the enzyme solution. An artificial substrate, phenolphthalein phosphate is used. The phosphate, being an end-product, also inhibits the enzyme. This experiment will demonstrate that the higher the concentration of phosphate present, the greater the inhibition of the enzyme.

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Syllabus Edition

First teaching 2014

Last exams 2024

Skills: Respiration ( DP IB Biology: SL )

Revision note.

Biology Project Lead

Respirometer

Analysis of results from experiments involving measurement of respiration rates in germinating seeds or invertebrates using a respirometer.

• Respirometers are used to measure and investigate the rate of oxygen consumption during respiration in organisms
• Use of animals should be minimised when seeds can provide excellent data
• A sealed container containing live organisms and air
• An alkaline solution (eg. potassium hydroxide) to absorb CO 2
• A capillary tube connected to the container and set against a graduated scale (a manometer )
• The organisms respire aerobically and absorb oxygen from the air
• The  CO 2 they release is absorbed by the alkali
• This reduces the air pressure inside the sealed chamber
• The manometer fluid (shown in red below) moves towards the organisms because of the pressure drop inside the chamber
• A thermostatically controlled water bath is the best way to maintain a constant temperature
• Repeat readings give a reliable mean
• Eg. temperature – using a series of water baths

Use of technology to measure rate of respiration

• Not to be confused with breathing rate
• Without the need to expose the subject to hazards such as strong alkalis
• Dataloggers can record data over a period of time for analysis later

The typical set-up of a respirometer

The equation for calculating a change in gas volume

• The volume of oxygen consumed (mm 3 min -1 ) can be worked out using the radius of the lumen of the capillary tube r (mm) and the distance moved by the manometer fluid h (mm) in a minute using the formula:

Worked example

A respirometer was set up with germinating mung beans in the experimental tube. After a  period of equilibration, the liquid in the capillary was measured to move by 2.3 cm in 25 minutes 30 seconds. The capillary tube had an internal diameter of 0.30 mm. Calculate the rate of respiration of the mung beans, measured as the rate oxygen uptake, in mm 3 hr -1 Use the value of pi (π) = 3.141 and state your final answer to 2 significant figures

Step 1: Calculate the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube

Diameter = 0.30mm, so radius = 0.30 ÷ 2 = 0.15 mm

Step 2: Calculate the volume of oxygen that had been taken up

Volume of liquid moved in 25 minutes 30 seconds =

= 0.0707 ✕ 23 = 1.625 mm 3

Step 3: Calculate the rate of oxygen consumption per hour

25 minutes 30 seconds = 25.5 minutes

3.824 mm 3 hr -1

NOS: Assessing the ethics of scientific research: the use of invertebrates in respirometer experiments has ethical implications

• The use of live animals in experiments has raised ethical concerns
• Does human learning outweigh the suffering that may be caused?
• Will the animals suffer or feel pain ?
• How can exposure to hazards be minimised for the animals eg. avoiding contact with the alkali
• Animals must be returned to their natural habitat directly after the readings have been taken
• Can an alternative method that uses other non-animal species be found that still provides learning eg. the use of germinating seeds ?
• There must be no laboratory work that causes pain or suffering to animals or humans
• Use a controlled water bath to keep the temperature constant
• Have a control tube with an equal volume of inert material to the volume of the organisms to compensate for changes in atmospheric pressure
• Repeat the experiment multiple times for reliability and calculate a mean

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Mung Bean Experiment

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The mung beans in the control group germinated at a slower pace and didnt grow long in length before dying off. The mung beans in the experiment group grew at a faster rate, as well as more beans sprouting, they grew significantly longer in length. The experiment group beans also lasted longer in the growing process. This led me to my alternate hypothesis; there is a difference in germination root length due to the source of light received.

Control Group

Experiment Group

Alternate Hypothesis: There is a difference in germination root length due to the source of light.

Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in germination root length due to the source of light.

I will be testing if there is a direct effect on mung bean growth based on the light it receives for energy. My control group are the mung beans placed in natural sunlight and my experiment group are mung beans placed under a grow light for the same amount of time that there is daylight. Each group will be placed in petri dishes on damp paper towels and covered with damp paper towels. I will be monitoring the germination of the mung beans to assess the rate of growth, every 2 days I will add 2ml of water to ensure that they stay damp.

Introduction & Methods:

Natural Sunlight

Mung Bean Science Fair

• Open access
• Published: 17 January 2014

A review of phytochemistry, metabolite changes, and medicinal uses of the common food mung bean and its sprouts ( Vigna radiata )

• Dongyan Tang 1 ,
• Yinmao Dong 1 , 2 ,
• Hankun Ren 2 ,
• Li Li 2 &
• Congfen He 2  

Chemistry Central Journal volume  8 , Article number:  4 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

The seeds and sprouts of mung bean ( Vigna radiata ), a common food, contain abundant nutrients with biological activities. This review provides insight into the nutritional value of mung beans and its sprouts, discussing chemical constituents that have been isolated in the past few decades, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. Moreover, we also summarize dynamic changes in metabolites during the sprouting process and related biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, lipid metabolism accommodation, antihypertensive, and antitumor effects, etc., with the goal of providing scientific evidence for better application of this commonly used food as a medicine.

Introduction

With increasing clinical evidence suggesting that plant-derived foods have various potential health benefits, their consumption has been growing at a rate of 5%-10% per year [ 1 ]. Moreover, many worldwide health organizations have recommended an increase in the intake of plant-derived foods to improve health status and prevent chronic diseases [ 2 ].

The mung bean ( Vigna radiata ) has been consumed as a common food in China for more than 2,000 years. It is well known for its detoxification activities and is used to refresh mentality, alleviate heat stroke, and reduce swelling in the summer. In the book Ben Cao Qiu Zhen (本草求真), the mung bean was recorded to be beneficial in the regulation of gastrointestinal upset and to moisturize the skin [ 3 ]. The seeds and sprouts of mung beans are also widely used as a fresh salad vegetable or common food in India, Bangladesh, South East Asia, and western countries [ 4 ]. As a food, mung beans contain balanced nutrients, including protein and dietary fiber, and significant amounts of bioactive phytochemicals. High levels of proteins, amino acids, oligosaccharides, and polyphenols in mung beans are thought to be the main contributors to the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities of this food and are involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism [ 5 – 8 ].

In recent years, studies have shown that the sprouts of mung beans after germination have more obvious biological activities and more plentiful secondary metabolites since relevant biosynthetic enzymes are activated during the initial stages of germination. Thus, germination is thought to improve the nutritional and medicinal qualities of mung beans [ 9 ]. Highly efficient use of mung beans according to evidence demonstrated from scientific experiments will be beneficial to the application of mung beans as a health food, medicine, and cosmetic [ 10 ]. In the present review, we summarize the nutritional value, chemical constituents, and metabolite changes during the sprouting process, as well as pharmacological activities, and clinical applications of mung beans, which will provide a better understanding of the potential applications of this common food.

Nutritional value of mung beans as a common food

Mung beans are a pulse or food legume crop used primarily as dried seeds and occasionally as forage or green pods and seeds for vegetables [ 11 ]. Dried seeds may be eaten whole or split, cooked, fermented, or milled and ground into flour. Mung beans can also be made into products like soups, porridge, confections, curries, and alcoholic beverages. In western cultures, mung bean sprouts are popularly used as a fresh salad vegetable [ 12 ].

Importantly, mung beans are composed of about 20%–24% protein. Globulin and albumin are the main storage proteins found in mung bean seeds and make up over 60% and 25% of the total mung bean protein, respectively. Therefore, due to its high protein content and digestibility, consumption of mung beans in combination with cereals can significantly increase the quality of protein in a meal [ 13 , 14 ]. Mung bean protein is rich in essential amino acids, such as total aromatic amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, and valine, as compared with the FAO/WHO (1973) reference. However, compared with the reference pattern, mung bean protein is slightly deficient in threonine, total sulfur amino acids, lysine, and tryptophan [ 15 ]. Moreover, the proteolytic cleavage of proteins during sprouting leads to a significant increase in the levels of amino acids.

Mung beans have much greater carbohydrate content (50%–60%) than soybeans, and starch is the predominant carbohydrate in the legume. Due to its high starch content, mung beans have typically been used for the production of starchy noodles, also called muk in Korea. Oligosaccharides, including raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose, in raw or poorly processed legumes are associated with flatulence in the human diet. While these oligosaccharides are present in mung beans, they are soluble in water and can be eliminated by adequate presoaking, germination, or fermentation. The energy offered by mung beans and sprouts is lower than that of other cereals, which is beneficial for individuals with obesity and diabetes [ 16 ]. In addition, trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinin, tannins, and phytic acid found in the mung bean have also been reported to have biological functions, promoting digestion and eliminating toxins [ 17 ].

In addition to high protein and low energy content, mung beans also contain various enzymes and plentiful microelements. For example, superoxide dismutase (SOD) extracted from the mung bean can be chemically modified and made into an SOD oral liquid. This chemically modified SOD can avoid destruction by gastric acid and pepsin, thereby extending its half-life, making it suitable for human oral absorption [ 17 ].

Overall, regular consumption of mung beans could regulate the flora of enterobacteria, decrease the absorption of toxic substances, reduce the risk of hypercholesterolemia and coronary heart disease, and prevent cancer [ 18 ].

• Chemical constituents

During the past few decades, flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids and lipids have been identified from the seeds and sprouts of mung beans and have been shown to contribute to its pharmaceutical activities. The structures of these constituents and corresponding plant sources are summarized in Figure  1 .

Structures of chemical components of mung bean seeds and sprouts.

Flavone, isoflavone, flavonoids, and isoflavonoids (compounds 1–44 in Table  1 ) are the important metabolites found in the mung bean [ 19 , 20 ]. Most flavonoids have polyhydroxy substitutions and can be classified as polyphenols with obvious antioxidant activity. Vitexin (apigenin-8-C- β -glucopyranoside) and isovitexin (apigenin-6-C- β -glucopyranoside) have been reported to be present in mung bean seeds at about 51.1 and 51.7 mg g −1 , respectively [ 21 , 22 ]. Flavonoids are involved in stress protection (i.e., oxidative and temperature stress), early plant development, signaling (i.e., legume nodulation), and protection from insect and mammalian herbivores [ 23 ].

Phenolic acids

Phenolic acids are secondary metabolites primarily synthesized through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways [ 6 ]. Phenolic acids are major bioactive phytochemicals, and their presence in wild plants has facilitated the trend toward the increasing use of wild plants as foods [ 24 , 25 ].

Twelve phenolic acids (compounds 45–56 in Table  1 ) have been identified from mung bean seeds and sprouts [ 26 , 27 ]. Based on high levels of total phenolics and total flavonoids, mung beans show the benefits of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities, tyrosinase inhibition, and antiproliferative and alcohol dehydrogenase activities, which allow it to be used as a substitution for proper prescription drugs and as a preventative or therapeutic agent for the treatment of human diseases [ 28 ].

Organic acids and lipids have also been found in mung beans and sprouts. Twenty-one organic acids, including phosphoric and citric acid, and 16 lipids, including γ -tocopherol, were reported to be the major components of mung beans by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) [ 29 ].

Dynamic changes in metabolites

Under biotic and abiotic stress, plant physiology dramatically changes. The induction of defense systems, such as those involving proteinase inhibitors, produces a response that protects the plant from these types of stresses [ 30 ]. As a part of this response, accumulation of secondary metabolites with various health benefits has been observed [ 29 , 31 ]. However, in the absence of stress, healthy plants can also be stimulated by stress inducers to artificially produce secondary metabolites. Targeted analyses have demonstrated that the germination of mung beans is accompanied by a spectrum of significant changes in metabolite contents, such as decreased antinutrient concentrations [ 32 ] and increased levels of free amino acids [ 15 , 32 – 35 ].

Germination significantly reduces the levels of reducing sugars and starches by 36.1% and 8.78%, respectively [ 15 ]. Interestingly, until 60 h of incubation, levels of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose increase dramatically in the germinating material. However, significant reductions in the levels of both sugars have been observed during the final germination stage from 60 to 75 h. The concentration of the disaccharide sucrose increases within the first 24 h, but rapidly declines after the initial germination phase [ 9 , 15 , 29 ]. Moreover, raffinose and stachyose are completely eliminated during germination. The decline of sucrose in the latter stages of sprouting may be due to the lack of raffinose, resulting in the hydrolysis of sucrose for the energy supply [ 15 ].

Compared to cereals, mung beans contain higher amounts of protein [ 35 ]. As described earlier, proteolytic cleavage of proteins during sprouting leads to a significant increase in the levels of most amino acids. Additionally, increased levels of free amino acids in germinated mung beans and lentils have been observed via targeted analysis [ 33 , 36 ].

Gentistic acid, cinnamic acid, and p -hydroxybenzoic acid are the major phenolic acids of metabolites that are found throughout the sprouting process [ 37 ]. Within the first day of incubation, the levels of caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and shikimic acid are relatively low in mung bean seeds. However, after the initial soaking and early germination phase, mung bean samples exhibit significantly increasing amounts of these compounds [ 25 ]. Moreover, the levels of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and coumarin increase dramatically in the germination material until day 3 or 4, and catechin levels increase during the final stage of mung bean sprout development (i.e., on the eighth day of incubation) [ 26 ].

The overall levels of organic acids also increase during sprouting. Phosphoric and citric acid are 2 of the major organic acid metabolites. A distinct and continuous increase in lactic acid is observed, while malic acid and citric acid peak after only 24 h of incubation [ 29 ].

Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) are formed mainly from transesterification of the crude lipid extract and reflect the presence of mung bean triglycerides. Within the first 24 h of incubation, changes in the levels of most FAMEs are relatively minimal. However, after the initial soaking and early germination phase, mung bean samples exhibit significant decreases in the levels of FAMEs. In contrast, the levels of γ -aminobutyric acid in mung bean sprouts are enhanced throughout sprout development and may be of special interest for human nutrition because of its health-promoting effects [ 29 , 38 ].

Protease inhibitors are proteins or peptides capable of inhibiting catalytic activities of proteolytic enzymes that play essential roles in biological systems, regulating proteolytic processes, and participate in defense mechanisms against a large number of insects, fungi, and other pathogenic microorganisms [ 39 ]. During the first 5 days of germination, there is a gradual decrease in the levels of extractable trypsin inhibitors in mung bean seeds [ 40 ]. The hemagglutinin activity of mung bean seeds has also been reported to decrease by about 84.4% after 3 days of germination [ 41 ].

• Biological activities

In ancient books, mung beans were well known for their detoxification activities. Mung bean protein, tannin, and other polyphenols are thought to combine with organophosphorus pesticides, mercury, arsenic, and other heavy metals, promoting the excretion of sediments from the body [ 42 ]. Mung beans have been shown to possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Moreover, mung beans have antidiabetic, antihypertensive, lipid metabolism accommodation, antihypertensive, and antitumor effects, among others (Table  2 ). These various properties of this functional legume are discussed below.

Antioxidant effects

The proteins, polypeptides, polysaccharides, and polyphenols from the seeds, sprouts, and hulls of mung beans all show potential antioxidant activity. The antioxidant capacities of mung bean protein hydrolysate (MPH) have been reported as 0.67 and 0.46 μmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/mg protein, as measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein (ORAC FL ) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assays, respectively. Freeze-drying in lactose excipient reduces the antioxidant capacity of MPH to 0.48 μmol TE/mg protein in the ORAC FL assay, but does not alter the results of the TEAC assay [ 43 ].

MP1 and MP2, isolated from the water extract of mung beans, are 2 acid heteropolysaccharides with 9.9% and 36.4% uronic acid content, respectively. The main composition of MP1 (molecular weight: 83 kDa) is mannose, whereas MP2 (molecular weight: 45 kDa) consists of rhamnose and galactose. MP2 exhibits higher hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity, while MP1 has higher reducing power and stronger scavenging capacity for superoxide and DPPH radicals, as well as greater inhibition of the self-oxidation of 1,2,3-phentriol than MP2 [ 44 ].

Importantly, mung bean extracts possess significantly higher radical scavenging activities, greater reducing power, and higher levels of polyphenols than soy bean extracts, suggesting that they are superior functional foods. Indeed, the radical scavenging activities of DPPH and 2,2′-azino-di-(3-ethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzthiazoline −6-sulfonate) (ABTS) isolated from mung bean extracts were found to be 11.33 ± 0.24 and 36.65 ± 0.63 μmol/g, respectively, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of mung bean extracts was 31.85 ± 3.03 μmol/g. Mung bean extracts reduce the rate of pyrogallol autoxidation by 85% compared to the control and possess SOD-like activity of 83.48% ± 0.88% [ 45 ].

During the sprouting process, sprout extracts show higher amounts of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and DPPH radical scavenging activity than seed extracts [ 28 ]. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of mung bean sprouts is the highest on day 1 or 2, depending on the analysis method used (i.e., β- carotene assay or DPPH assay, respectively) [ 6 ].

The DPPH scavenging activity (SA) of mung bean soup (MBS; 20 mg/mL) is approximately 145% that of tea soup (5 mg/mL) and 195% that of vitamin C solution (0.15 mg/mL), indicating that the DPPH-SA of 100 g mung bean is equivalent to that of 36.3 g dried green tea and 1462 mg vitamin C. Vitexin and isovitexin are the major antioxidant components in mung beans [ 46 ]. Vitexin inhibits DPPH radicals by approximately 60% at 100 μg/mL and effectively prevents UV-induced skin cell death [ 47 ].

Antimicrobial activity

The use of phytochemicals as natural antimicrobial agents, commonly called ‘biocides’ is gaining popularity. Enzymes, peptides, and polyphenols extracted from mung beans have been shown to possess both antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Assays for antifungal activity are usually executed using the method of inhibition crescents, while assays for antimicrobial activity are performed using the deferred plate method or the agar-diffusion method [ 48 , 49 ].

A nonspecific lipid transfer peptide (nsLTP; molecular weight: 9.03 kDa) with antimicrobial and antifungal activity was isolated from mung bean seeds. Interestingly, nsLTP exerts antifungal effects on Fusarium solani , F. oxysporum , Pythium aphanidermatum , and Sclerotium rolfsii and antibacterial effects on Staphylococcus aureus but not Salmonella typhimurium [ 50 ].

Mungin, a novel cyclophilin-like antifungal protein isolated from mung bean seeds, possesses activity against the fungi Rhizoctonia solani , Coprinus comatus , Mycosphaerella arachidicola , Botrytis cinerea , and F. oxysporum . Mungin also exerts inhibitory activity against α - and β -glucosidases, suppressing [ 3 H] thymidine in corporation by mouse splenocytes [ 51 ].

In 2005, a chitinase (30.8 kDa) with antifungal activity was isolated from mung bean seeds. The protein has a pI of 6.3, as determined by isoelectric focusing, and an estimated specific activity of 3.81 U/mg. The enzyme exhibits optimal activity at pH 5.4 and is stable from 40 to 50°C. Importantly, chitinase exerts antifungal activity on R. solani , F. oxysporum , M. arachidicola , P. aphanidermatum , and S. rolfsii [ 52 ] .

In addition to the above antimicrobial and antifungal effects, polyphenol extracts from mung bean sprouts have also been shown to have activity against Helicobacter pylori , one of the most common bacterial infections in human beings causing gastroduodenal disease [ 6 ].

Anti-inflammatory activity

In Asia, mung beans have been used in various cuisines and in folk remedies to treat toxic poisoning, heat stroke associated with thirst, irritability, and fever; these beneficial effects of mung beans are thought to be related to the inflammatory response [ 53 ].

Researchers have analyzed the anti-inflammatory effects of mung bean ethanol extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. The extract mainly included polyphenols, gallic acid, vitexin, and isovitexin and markedly reduced the activity of murine macrophages through the prevention of pro-inflammatory gene expression without cytotoxicity [ 54 ]. Moreover, a study demonstrated that all pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1 β , IL-6, IL-12 β , tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α , and inducible NO synthase (iNOS), were dramatically down regulated in cells treated with 3.7 mg/mL polyphenols. These results suggested that the ethanol extract had great potential to improve the clinical symptoms of inflammation-associated diseases, such as allergies and diabetes [ 55 ].

The immune modulatory activities of mung bean water extracts and monomers on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) have also been evaluated by BrdU immunoassay, secretion of interferon-gamma (IFN- γ ) and IL-10, and elucidation of the responding cells by flow cytometry. The results demonstrated that 20 μg/mL genistein, phytic acid, and syringic acid induce a Th1-predominant immune response through significant suppression of IL-10 secretion and promotion of IFN- γ secretion. The study concluded that several non-nutritional ingredients of mung beans, such as flavonoids, acids, and plant hormones, are most likely to be important in the modulation of human immunity [ 56 ].

Antidiabetic effects

Studies have also investigated the antidiabetic effects of mung bean extracts. In a study conducted in 2008, the antidiabetic effects of mung bean sprout extracts and mung bean seed coat extracts were investigated in type 2 diabetic mice (male KK-A y mice and C57BL/6 mice). These extracts were orally administered to KK-A y mice for 5 weeks, and mung bean sprout extracts (2 g/kg) and mung bean seed coat extracts (3 g/kg) lowered blood glucose, plasma C-peptide, glucagon, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. At the same time, both treatments markedly improved glucose tolerance and increased insulin immunoreactive levels [ 57 ].

Phenolic antioxidants and levo-dihydroxy phenylalanine (L-DOPA) can be enriched in mung bean extracts through solid-state bioconversion (SSB) by R. oligosporus , with the goal of enhancing health-linked functionality. α -Amylase is responsible for cleaving starch during the digestive process, which is important in the management of postprandial blood glucose levels. A study in 2007 by Randir and Shetty investigated the inhibition of α -amylase and H. pylori in bioprocessed extracts and linked these effects to diabetes management and peptic ulcer management, respectively. The α -amylase inhibition potential of the tested sprouts extract was moderately high during early stages (days 0–2) and was higher during days 4–10, which correlated with higher phenolic content [ 58 ].

Lipid metabolism accommodation

The modulation of lipid metabolism by mung bean has been well established. In an early study, rabbits with hyperlipidemia were fed a 70% mixture of mung bean meal and mung bean sprout powder. The mixtures affected the total cholesterol and β -lipoprotein content, alleviating symptoms of coronary artery diseases [ 59 ]. Additionally, in more recent studies, normal mice and rats were fed mung bean extracts for 7 days, and total cholesterol was significantly decreased in both types of rodents. This effect was thought to arise from the phytosterol content of mung beans, which was similar to blood cholesterol, facilitating the prevention of cholesterol biosynthesis and absorption [ 60 ].

Antihypertensive effects

High doses (600 mg peptide/kg body weight) of raw sprout extracts, dried sprout extracts, and enzyme-digested sprout extracts have been shown to significantly reduce systolic blood pressure (SBP) in rats after administration for 6–9, 3–6, or 3–9 h, respectively. Similar changes were found in the plasma angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) activity of these mung bean extracts. A long-term (1-month) intervention study that included treatment with fresh sprout powder, dried sprout powder, and concentrated extracts of the sprouts was carried out. The results indicated that the sprout powders were not as efficacious as concentrated sprout extracts. The SBPs of rats treated with concentrated extracts of fresh and dried sprouts were significantly reduced during the intervention period from weeks 1–4 and weeks 2–4, respectively [ 61 ].

Antitumor effects

Mung beans have been shown to exert antitumor effects through several different mechanisms. The recombinant plant nucleases R-TBN1 and R-HBN1, similar to nucleases derived from pine pollen and mung beans, were found to be effective against melanoma tumors and were about 10-times more potent than bovine seminal ribonuclease (RNase). Due to their relatively low cytotoxicity and high efficiency, these recombinant plant nucleases appear to be stable biochemical agents that can be targeted as potential antitumor cytostatics [ 62 ].

In addition, mung beans have been shown to exert antiproliferative effects, as examined by MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay using an in vitro cell culture system. Mung beans exhibit dose-dependent antiproliferative effects against the tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell line CAL27 and several other cancer cell lines tested (i.e., DU145, SK-OV-3, MCF-7, and HL-60 cells) [ 63 ].

Another study evaluated the effects of trypsin inhibitors from mung beans (i.e., LysGP33) on the metastasis and proliferation of human colon cancer cells (SW480 cells). In this study, the effects of the purified GST-LysGP33 active fragment on the migration of SW480 cells were detected using wound healing assays. The results showed that 10 μmol/L GST-LysGP33 active fragment affected cell migration beginning at the 24-h time point. After 72 h, cells treated with GST-LysGP33 exhibited an approximate 50% reduction in wound healing compared to the control group [ 64 ].

Antisepsis effects

The aqueous extract from mung bean coat (MBC) is protective against sepsis in vitro and in vivo . The effect was achieved by the inhibition of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nucleosomal protein that has recently been established as a late mediator of lethal systemic inflammation with a relatively wider therapeutic window for pharmacological interventions. It was found that MBC dose-dependently attenuated the LPS-induced release of HMGB1 and several chemokines in macrophage cultures. The animal survival rates after oral administration of MBC were significantly increased from 29.4% (in the saline group, N = 17 mice) to 70% (in the experimental MBC extract group, N = 17 mice, P  < 0.05) [ 65 ]. Chlorogenic acid (56) has also been shown to be protective against lethal sepsis by inhibiting late mediators of sepsis. Chlorogenic acid suppresses endotoxin-induced HMGB1 release in a concentration-dependent manner in murine peritoneal macrophages. Additionally, administrations of chlorogenic acid attenuate systemic HMGB1 accumulation in vivo and prevented mortality induced by endotoxemia and polymicrobial sepsis [ 66 ].

The mung bean [ Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is one of the most important short-season, summer-growing legumes and is grown widely throughout tropic and subtropic regions. As we have discussed in this review, mung beans have wide applications in agriculture, health food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. Mung bean seeds and sprouts are excellent examples of functional foods that lower the risk of various diseases. Moreover, the seeds and sprouts have health-promoting effects in addition to their nutritive value.

During the germination process of the mung bean, its chemical constituents undergo a series of biochemical reactions. One such reaction is the synthesis of small active compounds from macromolecular substances, promoting absorption and utilization. Another change observed during germination is the formation and accumulation of many types of active substances, such as polyphenols, saponins, vitamin C, etc. Therefore, we believes that these changes in the chemical composition of mung beans during germination will lead to substantial and important changes in the pharmacological activities of mung beans as well.

Research into the chemical constituents and biological activities of mung bean seeds and sprouts have provided a solid theoretical basis for the development and utilization of mung beans. Combined with analysis of the metabolites of these chemical constituents, research investigating the physiological functions of these compounds is required for further advancement of this field. Thus, future studies may focus on the extraction and purification of new physiologically active substances in agriculture, health foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical applications.

Abbreviations

Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization

Superoxide dismutase

Pentose phosphate pathway

1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

Fatty acid methyl esters

Mung bean protein hydrolysate

Trolox equivalent

Oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein

Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity

2,2′-Azino-di-(3-ethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzthiazoline −6-sulfonate)

Ferric reducing antioxidant power

Scavenging activity

Mung bean soup

Nonspecific lipid transfer peptide

Lipopolysaccharide

Interleukin

Tumor necrosis factor

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Interferon-gamma

Blood urea nitrogen

Levo-dihydroxy phenylalanine

Solid-state bioconversion

Systolic blood pressure

Angiotensin I-converting enzyme

Ribonuclease

[3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide]

Mung bean coat

High mobility group box 1.

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This work was supported by the Research Foundation for Youth Scholars of Beijing Technology and Business University (QNJJ2012-27).

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Tang, D., Dong, Y., Ren, H. et al. A review of phytochemistry, metabolite changes, and medicinal uses of the common food mung bean and its sprouts ( Vigna radiata ). Chemistry Central Journal 8 , 4 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-153X-8-4

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A review of phytochemistry, metabolite changes, and medicinal uses of the common food mung bean and its sprouts ( Vigna radiata )

Dongyan tang.

1 Department of Chemistry, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150000, China

Yinmao Dong

2 Beijing Key Lab of Plant Resources Research and Development, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China

The seeds and sprouts of mung bean ( Vigna radiata ), a common food, contain abundant nutrients with biological activities. This review provides insight into the nutritional value of mung beans and its sprouts, discussing chemical constituents that have been isolated in the past few decades, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. Moreover, we also summarize dynamic changes in metabolites during the sprouting process and related biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, lipid metabolism accommodation, antihypertensive, and antitumor effects, etc., with the goal of providing scientific evidence for better application of this commonly used food as a medicine.

Introduction

With increasing clinical evidence suggesting that plant-derived foods have various potential health benefits, their consumption has been growing at a rate of 5%-10% per year [ 1 ]. Moreover, many worldwide health organizations have recommended an increase in the intake of plant-derived foods to improve health status and prevent chronic diseases [ 2 ].

The mung bean ( Vigna radiata ) has been consumed as a common food in China for more than 2,000 years. It is well known for its detoxification activities and is used to refresh mentality, alleviate heat stroke, and reduce swelling in the summer. In the book Ben Cao Qiu Zhen (本草求真), the mung bean was recorded to be beneficial in the regulation of gastrointestinal upset and to moisturize the skin [ 3 ]. The seeds and sprouts of mung beans are also widely used as a fresh salad vegetable or common food in India, Bangladesh, South East Asia, and western countries [ 4 ]. As a food, mung beans contain balanced nutrients, including protein and dietary fiber, and significant amounts of bioactive phytochemicals. High levels of proteins, amino acids, oligosaccharides, and polyphenols in mung beans are thought to be the main contributors to the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities of this food and are involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism [ 5 - 8 ].

In recent years, studies have shown that the sprouts of mung beans after germination have more obvious biological activities and more plentiful secondary metabolites since relevant biosynthetic enzymes are activated during the initial stages of germination. Thus, germination is thought to improve the nutritional and medicinal qualities of mung beans [ 9 ]. Highly efficient use of mung beans according to evidence demonstrated from scientific experiments will be beneficial to the application of mung beans as a health food, medicine, and cosmetic [ 10 ]. In the present review, we summarize the nutritional value, chemical constituents, and metabolite changes during the sprouting process, as well as pharmacological activities, and clinical applications of mung beans, which will provide a better understanding of the potential applications of this common food.

Nutritional value of mung beans as a common food

Mung beans are a pulse or food legume crop used primarily as dried seeds and occasionally as forage or green pods and seeds for vegetables [ 11 ]. Dried seeds may be eaten whole or split, cooked, fermented, or milled and ground into flour. Mung beans can also be made into products like soups, porridge, confections, curries, and alcoholic beverages. In western cultures, mung bean sprouts are popularly used as a fresh salad vegetable [ 12 ].

Importantly, mung beans are composed of about 20%–24% protein. Globulin and albumin are the main storage proteins found in mung bean seeds and make up over 60% and 25% of the total mung bean protein, respectively. Therefore, due to its high protein content and digestibility, consumption of mung beans in combination with cereals can significantly increase the quality of protein in a meal [ 13 , 14 ]. Mung bean protein is rich in essential amino acids, such as total aromatic amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, and valine, as compared with the FAO/WHO (1973) reference. However, compared with the reference pattern, mung bean protein is slightly deficient in threonine, total sulfur amino acids, lysine, and tryptophan [ 15 ]. Moreover, the proteolytic cleavage of proteins during sprouting leads to a significant increase in the levels of amino acids.

Mung beans have much greater carbohydrate content (50%–60%) than soybeans, and starch is the predominant carbohydrate in the legume. Due to its high starch content, mung beans have typically been used for the production of starchy noodles, also called muk in Korea. Oligosaccharides, including raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose, in raw or poorly processed legumes are associated with flatulence in the human diet. While these oligosaccharides are present in mung beans, they are soluble in water and can be eliminated by adequate presoaking, germination, or fermentation. The energy offered by mung beans and sprouts is lower than that of other cereals, which is beneficial for individuals with obesity and diabetes [ 16 ]. In addition, trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinin, tannins, and phytic acid found in the mung bean have also been reported to have biological functions, promoting digestion and eliminating toxins [ 17 ].

In addition to high protein and low energy content, mung beans also contain various enzymes and plentiful microelements. For example, superoxide dismutase (SOD) extracted from the mung bean can be chemically modified and made into an SOD oral liquid. This chemically modified SOD can avoid destruction by gastric acid and pepsin, thereby extending its half-life, making it suitable for human oral absorption [ 17 ].

Overall, regular consumption of mung beans could regulate the flora of enterobacteria, decrease the absorption of toxic substances, reduce the risk of hypercholesterolemia and coronary heart disease, and prevent cancer [ 18 ].

Chemical constituents

During the past few decades, flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids and lipids have been identified from the seeds and sprouts of mung beans and have been shown to contribute to its pharmaceutical activities. The structures of these constituents and corresponding plant sources are summarized in Figure  1 .

Structures of chemical components of mung bean seeds and sprouts.

Flavone, isoflavone, flavonoids, and isoflavonoids (compounds 1–44 in Table  1 ) are the important metabolites found in the mung bean [ 19 , 20 ]. Most flavonoids have polyhydroxy substitutions and can be classified as polyphenols with obvious antioxidant activity. Vitexin (apigenin-8-C- β -glucopyranoside) and isovitexin (apigenin-6-C- β -glucopyranoside) have been reported to be present in mung bean seeds at about 51.1 and 51.7 mg g −1 , respectively [ 21 , 22 ]. Flavonoids are involved in stress protection (i.e., oxidative and temperature stress), early plant development, signaling (i.e., legume nodulation), and protection from insect and mammalian herbivores [ 23 ].

Chemical constituents identified from mung bean seeds and sprouts

Phenolic acids

Phenolic acids are secondary metabolites primarily synthesized through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways [ 6 ]. Phenolic acids are major bioactive phytochemicals, and their presence in wild plants has facilitated the trend toward the increasing use of wild plants as foods [ 24 , 25 ].

Twelve phenolic acids (compounds 45–56 in Table  1 ) have been identified from mung bean seeds and sprouts [ 26 , 27 ]. Based on high levels of total phenolics and total flavonoids, mung beans show the benefits of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities, tyrosinase inhibition, and antiproliferative and alcohol dehydrogenase activities, which allow it to be used as a substitution for proper prescription drugs and as a preventative or therapeutic agent for the treatment of human diseases [ 28 ].

Organic acids and lipids have also been found in mung beans and sprouts. Twenty-one organic acids, including phosphoric and citric acid, and 16 lipids, including γ -tocopherol, were reported to be the major components of mung beans by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) [ 29 ].

Dynamic changes in metabolites

Under biotic and abiotic stress, plant physiology dramatically changes. The induction of defense systems, such as those involving proteinase inhibitors, produces a response that protects the plant from these types of stresses [ 30 ]. As a part of this response, accumulation of secondary metabolites with various health benefits has been observed [ 29 , 31 ]. However, in the absence of stress, healthy plants can also be stimulated by stress inducers to artificially produce secondary metabolites. Targeted analyses have demonstrated that the germination of mung beans is accompanied by a spectrum of significant changes in metabolite contents, such as decreased antinutrient concentrations [ 32 ] and increased levels of free amino acids [ 15 , 32 - 35 ].

Germination significantly reduces the levels of reducing sugars and starches by 36.1% and 8.78%, respectively [ 15 ]. Interestingly, until 60 h of incubation, levels of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose increase dramatically in the germinating material. However, significant reductions in the levels of both sugars have been observed during the final germination stage from 60 to 75 h. The concentration of the disaccharide sucrose increases within the first 24 h, but rapidly declines after the initial germination phase [ 9 , 15 , 29 ]. Moreover, raffinose and stachyose are completely eliminated during germination. The decline of sucrose in the latter stages of sprouting may be due to the lack of raffinose, resulting in the hydrolysis of sucrose for the energy supply [ 15 ].

Compared to cereals, mung beans contain higher amounts of protein [ 35 ]. As described earlier, proteolytic cleavage of proteins during sprouting leads to a significant increase in the levels of most amino acids. Additionally, increased levels of free amino acids in germinated mung beans and lentils have been observed via targeted analysis [ 33 , 36 ].

Gentistic acid, cinnamic acid, and p -hydroxybenzoic acid are the major phenolic acids of metabolites that are found throughout the sprouting process [ 37 ]. Within the first day of incubation, the levels of caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and shikimic acid are relatively low in mung bean seeds. However, after the initial soaking and early germination phase, mung bean samples exhibit significantly increasing amounts of these compounds [ 25 ]. Moreover, the levels of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and coumarin increase dramatically in the germination material until day 3 or 4, and catechin levels increase during the final stage of mung bean sprout development (i.e., on the eighth day of incubation) [ 26 ].

The overall levels of organic acids also increase during sprouting. Phosphoric and citric acid are 2 of the major organic acid metabolites. A distinct and continuous increase in lactic acid is observed, while malic acid and citric acid peak after only 24 h of incubation [ 29 ].

Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) are formed mainly from transesterification of the crude lipid extract and reflect the presence of mung bean triglycerides. Within the first 24 h of incubation, changes in the levels of most FAMEs are relatively minimal. However, after the initial soaking and early germination phase, mung bean samples exhibit significant decreases in the levels of FAMEs. In contrast, the levels of γ -aminobutyric acid in mung bean sprouts are enhanced throughout sprout development and may be of special interest for human nutrition because of its health-promoting effects [ 29 , 38 ].

Protease inhibitors are proteins or peptides capable of inhibiting catalytic activities of proteolytic enzymes that play essential roles in biological systems, regulating proteolytic processes, and participate in defense mechanisms against a large number of insects, fungi, and other pathogenic microorganisms [ 39 ]. During the first 5 days of germination, there is a gradual decrease in the levels of extractable trypsin inhibitors in mung bean seeds [ 40 ]. The hemagglutinin activity of mung bean seeds has also been reported to decrease by about 84.4% after 3 days of germination [ 41 ].

Biological activities

In ancient books, mung beans were well known for their detoxification activities. Mung bean protein, tannin, and other polyphenols are thought to combine with organophosphorus pesticides, mercury, arsenic, and other heavy metals, promoting the excretion of sediments from the body [ 42 ]. Mung beans have been shown to possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Moreover, mung beans have antidiabetic, antihypertensive, lipid metabolism accommodation, antihypertensive, and antitumor effects, among others (Table  2 ). These various properties of this functional legume are discussed below.

Biological activities and compounds of mung beans

Antioxidant effects

The proteins, polypeptides, polysaccharides, and polyphenols from the seeds, sprouts, and hulls of mung beans all show potential antioxidant activity. The antioxidant capacities of mung bean protein hydrolysate (MPH) have been reported as 0.67 and 0.46 μmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/mg protein, as measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein (ORAC FL ) and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assays, respectively. Freeze-drying in lactose excipient reduces the antioxidant capacity of MPH to 0.48 μmol TE/mg protein in the ORAC FL assay, but does not alter the results of the TEAC assay [ 43 ].

MP1 and MP2, isolated from the water extract of mung beans, are 2 acid heteropolysaccharides with 9.9% and 36.4% uronic acid content, respectively. The main composition of MP1 (molecular weight: 83 kDa) is mannose, whereas MP2 (molecular weight: 45 kDa) consists of rhamnose and galactose. MP2 exhibits higher hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity, while MP1 has higher reducing power and stronger scavenging capacity for superoxide and DPPH radicals, as well as greater inhibition of the self-oxidation of 1,2,3-phentriol than MP2 [ 44 ].

Importantly, mung bean extracts possess significantly higher radical scavenging activities, greater reducing power, and higher levels of polyphenols than soy bean extracts, suggesting that they are superior functional foods. Indeed, the radical scavenging activities of DPPH and 2,2′-azino-di-(3-ethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzthiazoline −6-sulfonate) (ABTS) isolated from mung bean extracts were found to be 11.33 ± 0.24 and 36.65 ± 0.63 μmol/g, respectively, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of mung bean extracts was 31.85 ± 3.03 μmol/g. Mung bean extracts reduce the rate of pyrogallol autoxidation by 85% compared to the control and possess SOD-like activity of 83.48% ± 0.88% [ 45 ].

During the sprouting process, sprout extracts show higher amounts of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and DPPH radical scavenging activity than seed extracts [ 28 ]. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of mung bean sprouts is the highest on day 1 or 2, depending on the analysis method used (i.e., β- carotene assay or DPPH assay, respectively) [ 6 ].

The DPPH scavenging activity (SA) of mung bean soup (MBS; 20 mg/mL) is approximately 145% that of tea soup (5 mg/mL) and 195% that of vitamin C solution (0.15 mg/mL), indicating that the DPPH-SA of 100 g mung bean is equivalent to that of 36.3 g dried green tea and 1462 mg vitamin C. Vitexin and isovitexin are the major antioxidant components in mung beans [ 46 ]. Vitexin inhibits DPPH radicals by approximately 60% at 100 μg/mL and effectively prevents UV-induced skin cell death [ 47 ].

Antimicrobial activity

The use of phytochemicals as natural antimicrobial agents, commonly called ‘biocides’ is gaining popularity. Enzymes, peptides, and polyphenols extracted from mung beans have been shown to possess both antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Assays for antifungal activity are usually executed using the method of inhibition crescents, while assays for antimicrobial activity are performed using the deferred plate method or the agar-diffusion method [ 48 , 49 ].

A nonspecific lipid transfer peptide (nsLTP; molecular weight: 9.03 kDa) with antimicrobial and antifungal activity was isolated from mung bean seeds. Interestingly, nsLTP exerts antifungal effects on Fusarium solani , F. oxysporum , Pythium aphanidermatum , and Sclerotium rolfsii and antibacterial effects on Staphylococcus aureus but not Salmonella typhimurium [ 50 ].

Mungin, a novel cyclophilin-like antifungal protein isolated from mung bean seeds, possesses activity against the fungi Rhizoctonia solani , Coprinus comatus , Mycosphaerella arachidicola , Botrytis cinerea , and F. oxysporum . Mungin also exerts inhibitory activity against α - and β -glucosidases, suppressing [ 3 H] thymidine in corporation by mouse splenocytes [ 51 ].

In 2005, a chitinase (30.8 kDa) with antifungal activity was isolated from mung bean seeds. The protein has a pI of 6.3, as determined by isoelectric focusing, and an estimated specific activity of 3.81 U/mg. The enzyme exhibits optimal activity at pH 5.4 and is stable from 40 to 50°C. Importantly, chitinase exerts antifungal activity on R. solani , F. oxysporum , M. arachidicola , P. aphanidermatum , and S. rolfsii [ 52 ] .

In addition to the above antimicrobial and antifungal effects, polyphenol extracts from mung bean sprouts have also been shown to have activity against Helicobacter pylori , one of the most common bacterial infections in human beings causing gastroduodenal disease [ 6 ].

Anti-inflammatory activity

In Asia, mung beans have been used in various cuisines and in folk remedies to treat toxic poisoning, heat stroke associated with thirst, irritability, and fever; these beneficial effects of mung beans are thought to be related to the inflammatory response [ 53 ].

Researchers have analyzed the anti-inflammatory effects of mung bean ethanol extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. The extract mainly included polyphenols, gallic acid, vitexin, and isovitexin and markedly reduced the activity of murine macrophages through the prevention of pro-inflammatory gene expression without cytotoxicity [ 54 ]. Moreover, a study demonstrated that all pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1 β , IL-6, IL-12 β , tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α , and inducible NO synthase (iNOS), were dramatically down regulated in cells treated with 3.7 mg/mL polyphenols. These results suggested that the ethanol extract had great potential to improve the clinical symptoms of inflammation-associated diseases, such as allergies and diabetes [ 55 ].

The immune modulatory activities of mung bean water extracts and monomers on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) have also been evaluated by BrdU immunoassay, secretion of interferon-gamma (IFN- γ ) and IL-10, and elucidation of the responding cells by flow cytometry. The results demonstrated that 20 μg/mL genistein, phytic acid, and syringic acid induce a Th1-predominant immune response through significant suppression of IL-10 secretion and promotion of IFN- γ secretion. The study concluded that several non-nutritional ingredients of mung beans, such as flavonoids, acids, and plant hormones, are most likely to be important in the modulation of human immunity [ 56 ].

Antidiabetic effects

Studies have also investigated the antidiabetic effects of mung bean extracts. In a study conducted in 2008, the antidiabetic effects of mung bean sprout extracts and mung bean seed coat extracts were investigated in type 2 diabetic mice (male KK-A y mice and C57BL/6 mice). These extracts were orally administered to KK-A y mice for 5 weeks, and mung bean sprout extracts (2 g/kg) and mung bean seed coat extracts (3 g/kg) lowered blood glucose, plasma C-peptide, glucagon, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. At the same time, both treatments markedly improved glucose tolerance and increased insulin immunoreactive levels [ 57 ].

Phenolic antioxidants and levo-dihydroxy phenylalanine (L-DOPA) can be enriched in mung bean extracts through solid-state bioconversion (SSB) by R. oligosporus , with the goal of enhancing health-linked functionality. α -Amylase is responsible for cleaving starch during the digestive process, which is important in the management of postprandial blood glucose levels. A study in 2007 by Randir and Shetty investigated the inhibition of α -amylase and H. pylori in bioprocessed extracts and linked these effects to diabetes management and peptic ulcer management, respectively. The α -amylase inhibition potential of the tested sprouts extract was moderately high during early stages (days 0–2) and was higher during days 4–10, which correlated with higher phenolic content [ 58 ].

Lipid metabolism accommodation

The modulation of lipid metabolism by mung bean has been well established. In an early study, rabbits with hyperlipidemia were fed a 70% mixture of mung bean meal and mung bean sprout powder. The mixtures affected the total cholesterol and β -lipoprotein content, alleviating symptoms of coronary artery diseases [ 59 ]. Additionally, in more recent studies, normal mice and rats were fed mung bean extracts for 7 days, and total cholesterol was significantly decreased in both types of rodents. This effect was thought to arise from the phytosterol content of mung beans, which was similar to blood cholesterol, facilitating the prevention of cholesterol biosynthesis and absorption [ 60 ].

Antihypertensive effects

High doses (600 mg peptide/kg body weight) of raw sprout extracts, dried sprout extracts, and enzyme-digested sprout extracts have been shown to significantly reduce systolic blood pressure (SBP) in rats after administration for 6–9, 3–6, or 3–9 h, respectively. Similar changes were found in the plasma angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) activity of these mung bean extracts. A long-term (1-month) intervention study that included treatment with fresh sprout powder, dried sprout powder, and concentrated extracts of the sprouts was carried out. The results indicated that the sprout powders were not as efficacious as concentrated sprout extracts. The SBPs of rats treated with concentrated extracts of fresh and dried sprouts were significantly reduced during the intervention period from weeks 1–4 and weeks 2–4, respectively [ 61 ].

Antitumor effects

Mung beans have been shown to exert antitumor effects through several different mechanisms. The recombinant plant nucleases R-TBN1 and R-HBN1, similar to nucleases derived from pine pollen and mung beans, were found to be effective against melanoma tumors and were about 10-times more potent than bovine seminal ribonuclease (RNase). Due to their relatively low cytotoxicity and high efficiency, these recombinant plant nucleases appear to be stable biochemical agents that can be targeted as potential antitumor cytostatics [ 62 ].

In addition, mung beans have been shown to exert antiproliferative effects, as examined by MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay using an in vitro cell culture system. Mung beans exhibit dose-dependent antiproliferative effects against the tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell line CAL27 and several other cancer cell lines tested (i.e., DU145, SK-OV-3, MCF-7, and HL-60 cells) [ 63 ].

Another study evaluated the effects of trypsin inhibitors from mung beans (i.e., LysGP33) on the metastasis and proliferation of human colon cancer cells (SW480 cells). In this study, the effects of the purified GST-LysGP33 active fragment on the migration of SW480 cells were detected using wound healing assays. The results showed that 10 μmol/L GST-LysGP33 active fragment affected cell migration beginning at the 24-h time point. After 72 h, cells treated with GST-LysGP33 exhibited an approximate 50% reduction in wound healing compared to the control group [ 64 ].

Antisepsis effects

The aqueous extract from mung bean coat (MBC) is protective against sepsis in vitro and in vivo . The effect was achieved by the inhibition of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nucleosomal protein that has recently been established as a late mediator of lethal systemic inflammation with a relatively wider therapeutic window for pharmacological interventions. It was found that MBC dose-dependently attenuated the LPS-induced release of HMGB1 and several chemokines in macrophage cultures. The animal survival rates after oral administration of MBC were significantly increased from 29.4% (in the saline group, N = 17 mice) to 70% (in the experimental MBC extract group, N = 17 mice, P  < 0.05) [ 65 ]. Chlorogenic acid (56) has also been shown to be protective against lethal sepsis by inhibiting late mediators of sepsis. Chlorogenic acid suppresses endotoxin-induced HMGB1 release in a concentration-dependent manner in murine peritoneal macrophages. Additionally, administrations of chlorogenic acid attenuate systemic HMGB1 accumulation in vivo and prevented mortality induced by endotoxemia and polymicrobial sepsis [ 66 ].

The mung bean [ Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is one of the most important short-season, summer-growing legumes and is grown widely throughout tropic and subtropic regions. As we have discussed in this review, mung beans have wide applications in agriculture, health food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. Mung bean seeds and sprouts are excellent examples of functional foods that lower the risk of various diseases. Moreover, the seeds and sprouts have health-promoting effects in addition to their nutritive value.

During the germination process of the mung bean, its chemical constituents undergo a series of biochemical reactions. One such reaction is the synthesis of small active compounds from macromolecular substances, promoting absorption and utilization. Another change observed during germination is the formation and accumulation of many types of active substances, such as polyphenols, saponins, vitamin C, etc. Therefore, we believes that these changes in the chemical composition of mung beans during germination will lead to substantial and important changes in the pharmacological activities of mung beans as well.

Research into the chemical constituents and biological activities of mung bean seeds and sprouts have provided a solid theoretical basis for the development and utilization of mung beans. Combined with analysis of the metabolites of these chemical constituents, research investigating the physiological functions of these compounds is required for further advancement of this field. Thus, future studies may focus on the extraction and purification of new physiologically active substances in agriculture, health foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical applications.

Abbreviations

FAO/WHO: Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; PPP: Pentose phosphate pathway; DPPH: 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; GC/MS: Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry; FAMEs: Fatty acid methyl esters; MPH: Mung bean protein hydrolysate; TE: Trolox equivalent; ORACFL: Oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein; TEAC: Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; ABTS: 2,2′-Azino-di-(3-ethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzthiazoline −6-sulfonate); FRAP: Ferric reducing antioxidant power; SA: Scavenging activity; MBS: Mung bean soup; nsLTP: Nonspecific lipid transfer peptide; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; IL: Interleukin; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; PBMCs: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells; IFN-γ: Interferon-gamma; BUN: Blood urea nitrogen; L-DOPA: Levo-dihydroxy phenylalanine; SSB: Solid-state bioconversion; SBP: Systolic blood pressure; ACE: Angiotensin I-converting enzyme; RNase: Ribonuclease; MTT: [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide]; MBC: Mung bean coat; HMGB1: High mobility group box 1.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

DY, LL, and RH were involved in preparing the manuscript. TD and HC participated in discussions of views represented in the paper. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Research Foundation for Youth Scholars of Beijing Technology and Business University (QNJJ2012-27).

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