resilience and entrepreneurship a systematic literature review

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This study aims to investigate how entrepreneurs deal with business challenges. Specifically, the objectives of this study are twofold; first, to examine how entrepreneurs acquire resilience in facing business challenges, and second, to how the entrepreneurs rebuild their businesses. The study proposed to conduct a literature review analysis as data collection to investigate the inquiries. The study attempts to focus on psychological attributes, social support networks, and organizational capacities and the function of resilience in minimizing the impact of exogenous shocks on entrepreneurial initiatives. In addition, the study will analyze literature on reinvention, where a business's ability to pivot in response to changing market conditions, technological breakthroughs, or other external variables. It is expected that the findings could contribute to providing an in-depth understanding of how entrepreneurs deal with business challenges. The findings would be useful for entrepreneurs to develop skills and training in dealing with business challenges. Overall, the goal of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of the dynamic and ever-changing character of entrepreneurship, as well as the role of resilience and reinvention in achieving entrepreneurial achievement.

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Relationship between mental health and students’ academic performance through a literature review

• Open access
• Published: 17 September 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  119 , ( 2024 )

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• Cynthia Lizeth Ramos-Monsivais 1 ,
• Sonia Rodríguez-Cano 2 ,
• Estefanía Lema-Moreira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2286-4902 3 &
• Vanesa Delgado-Benito 2  

Mindfulness has become increasingly popular to improve physical and mental health. Its implementation transcends boundaries of disciplines that study its impact. The aim of this study is to identify and analyze the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behavior of university students, as well as to identify the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. An analysis and systematic review of papers published in the Scopus database was conducted. It was found that publications on the implementation of mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. Their study has been developed in 22 countries, 15 are European, 3 Asians, 2 North American, one Latin American and one from Oceania. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country. Academically, mindfulness stimulates creativity, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, attention regulation, increases concentration and improves the learning experience. In addition, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to positively influence habituation towards mindfulness practice among university students.

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1 Introduction

In recent decades, mindfulness has gained popularity as a technique for reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. As well as increasing the well-being and quality of life of people who practice it [ 1 ]. Its origin is found in the Buddhist tradition, as a way to achieve clarity of thought [ 2 ]. Although this technique has been practiced in the East for more than 25 centuries, in the West its popularity is recent [ 3 ]. However, its application is expanding more and more in different disciplines [ 4 ].

Social-emotional learning has been introduced in education. It refers to the training of attention, through meditation techniques, such as mindfulness, the most recent update of the programs that seek emotional intelligence [ 5 ]. This type of education is also known as contemplative education, which seeks to enhance the learning experience through reflection and personal perception [ 6 ].

Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn defines mindfulness as “awareness that develops by paying concrete, sustained, deliberate, and non-judgmental attention to the present moment” [ 7 , p. 13]. It facilitates maintaining mental calm and training attention [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing mental clarity and awareness [ 9 ].

In terms of operability, three qualities that people develop while practicing mindfulness and three qualities related to how the practice is carried out are recognized. The first are observation, description, and participation. While in the mode of practice, acceptance is required, in the present moment and in an effective manner [ 10 ].

Mindfulness can be practiced formally and informally. In formal practice, a specific time is set aside daily for guided meditations. Informal practice brings awareness to daily activities. That is, paying attention to sensations and perceptions while walking, driving, eating, cleaning, among other activities [ 7 ].

Mindfulness has been shown to improve physical and mental health. In terms of physical health, it favors the increase of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BNDF) [ 11 ]. While in mental health it reduces symptoms of anxiety [ 12 ], stress [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] and depression [ 12 ]. It also facilitates coping with change and uncertainty [ 14 ] and increases well-being [ 17 ].

1.1 How might the efficacy of mindfulness be evaluated?

Blood tests can be used to measure the effectiveness of mindfulness. A reduction in the levels of cortisol, the stress hormone [ 13 ]; and of increased BNDF can be observed after two weeks of practice [ 11 ]. Increased blood BNDF levels are a potential mediator between meditation practice and brain health [ 13 ]. BNDF measured in the blood by plasma or saliva is called peripheral BNDF [ 18 ].

BNDF is a modulator that regulates neuron growth. It allows the creation of new dendrites which improves communication between neurons; in other words, it promotes greater neuronal plasticity in the central and peripheral nervous system [ 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Its main function is at the level of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, structures linked to learning and memory functions [ 13 ].

BNDF is produced in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Over time, its production tends to decrease. Its absence is related to psychiatric and neurological disorders such as emotional burnout, anxiety, depression and Alzheimer’s disease [ 13 ] However, some activities stimulate its production. Exercising, practicing yoga, undergoing controlled stress, traveling, acquiring new experiences, learning and mindfulness stimulate its production [ 13 , 20 ].

1.2 What are the reasons for integrating mindfulness into higher education?

The increase in mental health illnesses in college students has become a recognized concern [ 16 , 21 ]; which requires innovative interventions to address this reality [ 22 , 23 ]. In this sense, mindfulness emerges as a proposed solution [ 12 ], to prevent and reduce professional burnout [ 24 ]. Thus, there is growing interest in its applications in higher education [ 25 , 26 ].

In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, mindfulness practice promotes better academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Such as increased attention, learning and thinking [ 29 ]; and reduced pre-test anxiety [ 29 , 30 ].

Mindfulness practice also stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ], and critical thinking [ 2 ]. It increases spatial and sensory awareness [ 4 ], academic self-efficacy [ 32 , 33 ], productivity and task quality [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing the feeling of personal accomplishment [ 34 ].

On the other hand, it facilitates information retention [ 35 ], improves concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ] and allows for a perceived improvement in the overall learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. This is because it is essentially training the brain that facilitates focusing attention. A faculty that, for William James, father of American psychology, constituted the root of judgment, character and will [ 42 ].

1.3 Technological immersion in mindfulness

Studies show that technology is increasingly present in the field of mindfulness practice. Evidence of that is the introduction of video games such as the one developed at the University of Wisconsin called tenacity. This is to improve mindfulness through breathing exercises [ 5 ]. Mobile applications such as Headspace and Calm have also been developed to promote meditation techniques [ 43 , 44 ].

In addition to the above, immersive environments incorporating Virtual Reality (VR) have been developed to stimulate mindfulness practice. Home meditation studio, tripp and maloka are some of the applications that virtual reality allows mindfulness practice in totally immersive environments.

1.4 Virtual reality and mindfulness in education

VR makes it possible to experience alternative realities perceived atmospherically [ 45 ]. It is applied in disciplines and sciences such as medicine, engineering, mathematics, dentistry and education [ 46 ]. In education it is used to improve academic performance [ 29 ], and increase attention, creativity, flow state, and habituation to practice [ 47 ].

Pascual et al. [ 48 ] state that, despite there being few studies related to the evaluation of mindfulness interventions using VR, it is considered a more effective platform than standalone mobile meditation apps for encouraging daily practice. Along those lines, results from Miller et al. [ 49 ] study indicates that VR-guided meditation practice is associated with increased positive affect compared to non-VR meditation.

In the case study by Malighetti et al. [ 50 ] it was found that techniques for the development of emotional intelligence such as increased awareness, identification of emotional states, increased resilience and self-control implemented through VR allowed greater mental regulation in terms of eating habits in patients with binge eating disorders. In that order, students with greater emotional regulation have greater self-efficacy [ 51 ].

VR mindfulness promotes mental health [ 52 ]. Studies show that it can reduce insomnia and stress [ 53 ] and improve learning [ 46 ]. Coupled with the above, Kwon et al. [ 30 ] found that incorporating virtual environments through VR is feasible for managing anxiety stemming from academic exams.

Kaplan-Rakowski et al. [ 29 ] study showed that students who meditated with VR performed better academically than those who meditated using videos. While Yang et al.’s [ 47 ] research, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to affect traits associated with students' creativity such as flow state and attention. When students were assigned creative challenges or challenges, those who participated in immersive VR produced better quality products. They also maintained a more stable attention level than the control group.

VR can impact long-term learning. According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] it use in the educational context needs to be reflected upon, because it triggers human perception with far-reaching consequences and people using it hardly question the alternative reality experience it offers. Nevertheless, it can contribute significantly to students’ training through the development of enhanced digital skills and increased mindfulness.

According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] VR can trace the path towards mindfulness in different educational contexts: in teaching and in transforming the relationship between society and the environment. A view that coincides with Whewell et al. [ 54 ] who argue that these immersive experiences contribute to the development of enhanced digital skills, increased student engagement, cultural competence and global mindfulness in university students. VR can foster the conditions for students to become global change agents “within the spheres of entrepreneurship and education” [ 54 , p.1].

However, mindfulness benefits require continuous practice. According to the study by Pascual et al. [ 48 ], meditation sessions are associated with a decrease in anxiety. Therefore, identifying how to introduce and implement an effective program is of the utmost relevance for updating the current educational system.

In that sense, this research aims to identify programs that have been implemented to incorporate mindfulness into higher education. From its beginnings to the present, it analyzes the scientific literature to understand the evolution of its implementation. It identifies the countries where these programs are carried out, the universities that participate, the years they have been carried out and the types of documents published.

Mindfulness's documented benefits for mental health, academic performance, well-being, and students' awareness and prosocial behavior are discussed. Finally, technology, specifically virtual reality, is addressed as a medium that facilitates mindfulness practice stimulation and habituation.

Therefore, the following research questions were defined: 1. How many publications are published per year? 2. In what language are they published? 3. What kind of documents are published? 4. Which universities are involved in the research? 5. In which countries are mindfulness and higher education being studied? 6. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' mental health? 7. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' academic performance? 8. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ well-being? 9. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ conscientiousness and prosocial behaviour? 10. Is virtual reality the most effective medium for fostering mindfulness among higher education students?

An analysis of scientific publications in the scopus database, which could be accessed through an institutional account of the University of Burgos in Spain as part of a research stay, was carried out. The information search was conducted using English keywords. The keywords used to elaborate the search string were mindfulness, meditation, university students and higher education students. This search string yielded 70 publications as of July 19, 2024.

All Scopus database publication types were considered inclusion criteria: articles, book chapters, papers, reviews, books and short surveys. In English and Spanish. All articles whose information was not available, were not aimed at higher education students, or did not address any meditation technique were excluded.

An Excel document with the articles' information was extracted for analysis. One article was not available so 69 documents were considered. It was found that 11 publications did not actually mention meditation techniques and were excluded. Also, 5 publications not directed at higher education students were not considered. This resulted in 53 selected research papers. Figure  1 illustrates the situation.

Flow diagram

To answer questions 6, 7 and 8, a subsequent analysis was carried out to identify the measurement variables used by the authors. Measurement variables were identified in the selected documents. The variables were divided into four categories. Mental health, academic achievement, well-being, and prosocial awareness and attitude.

The mental health category includes 9 variables: reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization burnout and negative mood. Also increased mental health, calmness and positive mood. Of the 53 items, 4 address some mental health elements and 23 also include elements from other categories.

Academic achievement is made up of 16 variables: academic performance, clinical performance, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, productivity, task quality, academic speed, persistence, observation skills, attention regulation skills, information retention, academic self-efficacy and concentration. Additionally, the learning experience and divergent and convergent creative writing will be improved. Of the 53 items, 5 address elements relating to academic achievement and 19 also include elements from other categories.

The well-being category consists of 13 variables: increased life satisfaction, well-being, sense of belonging, emotional self-regulation, quality of life, self-compassion, physical activity, resilience, non-judgmental acceptance, perceived social support, and sense of accomplishment. Also included are better dietary decision making and improved sleep quality. Of the 53 items, 1 addresses well-being items and 20 include items from other categories.

In the category awareness and prosocial behavior, 14 variables were integrated: increased mindfulness skills, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, self-awareness, dispositional mindfulness, empathy, benevolence, prosocial behavior, collectivism, a sense of transcendence, universalalism, mental clarity, responsibility and improved interpersonal relationships. Of the 53 items, one addresses element unique to prosocial awareness and behavior and 21 also include elements from other categories.

To answer question 8, an additional search integrating technology and virtual reality was included. Although the object of this study is directed primarily at higher education students, research that analyses mindfulness incorporation at other educational levels was considered in this question.

The results of the research are presented in this section. We start with the general findings and then answer the research questions.

3.1 General findings

Although all the investigations analysed are directed at higher education students, 27 do not specify the discipline or the educational program in which the students are enrolled. However, it was found that the educational programs where mindfulness effectiveness is most frequently studied is in medicine and nursing with six investigations, engineering with four, and then anaesthesiology, arts and design, sciences, modern dance, law midwifery, writing, pharmacy, literature, music, social work and design pedagogy with one respectively.

Regarding the duration of the programs, of the 53 studies analysed, 31 do not specify the duration of the practice in weeks, days or sessions. However, in six investigations the programs lasted 8 weeks and in five investigations, 6 weeks. The longest program consisted of 12 weeks and the shortest 1 day. About the analysis of keywords, Fig.  2 shows the identified word networks.

Visualization of keyword networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

In this analysis, it was found that of the 418 keywords used, 30 have at least a frequency of occurrence of 5. It is highlighted that the words with a higher frequency of occurrence and greater connectivity are mindfulness and meditation. Next, the research questions are answered.

How many papers are published each year about mindfulness and higher education students?

According to Table  1 , publications on mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. In 2014, these rates began to remain constant. In the United States, the first publication was produced by the doctor Daniel Holland, associated with universities in Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Illinois, and Washington. At the University of Pennsylvania, the first program for developing resilience in children was developed. Furthermore, in the late 1990s, doctors Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, both affiliated with the same university, pioneered positive psychology [ 55 ].

As part of positive education, positive psychology was introduced to institutions. The concept of positive education succeeds the concept of emotional education. In addition to emotions, this approach incorporates other elements such as meditation in order to increase well-being [ 56 ].

What is the language in which mindfulness research is published? There are 53 documents in the collection, 50 of which are in English and three of which are in Spanish

Are there any published documents that discuss mindfulness and students in higher education? Publications were classified into five categories: articles, reviews, book chapters, presentations and books. As shown in Table  2 , each type of document has a different quantity.

There are several different types of documents published. Articles are the most frequently published. Review articles, presentations, book chapters, and books follow.

What are the publications of universities on mindfulness and higher education students?

A summary of the publications produced, the universities that participate in collaborations, and the most important findings are presented in this section according to the type of document, the language, and the year.

3.2 Spanish-language articles

There have been only three articles published in Spanish. These include one by the University of Almería in Spain in 2009, another by the University of Lisbon in Portugal in 2022 and another by the University of Granada in Spain in 2024. A study by Justo and Luque [ 57 ] demonstrated that mindfulness leads to a deepening of reflection and self-awareness, which in turn stimulates prosocial values like benevolence, collectivism, and the sense of universalism and transcendence. Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ] conducted a study in which individual and collective activities were incorporated into two courses, including mindfulness, using students' portfolios and teachers’ notes. On the other hand, in the study by García-Pérez et al. [ 23 ] mindfulness is considered as a starting point to guarantee mental health and improve the well-being of university students.

3.3 Articles in English

In 2014, two English-language publications were published. One by Nottingham Trent University in the United Kingdom and one by Duke University Medical Center in the United States. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] found that the Koru mindfulness training program improved sleep, improved mindfulness skills, increased self-compassion, and decreased stress among college students.

According to Van Gordon et al. [ 3 ], the Meditation, Awareness Training (MAT) program has been evaluated by college students. During the eighth weeks of training, the students demonstrated improved well-being and self-regulation skills in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. A significant increase was also observed in dispositional mindfulness.

In 2015 only one paper was published by Newcastle University in Australia. In this study, after 7 weeks of practicing mindfulness, students showed an improvement in their well-being, sleep quality, increased concentration, mental clarity and a reduction in negative mood was observed [ 22 ].

In 2016, two articles were published, one by Chatham University in the United States, and another where two universities from two different countries participated, the National University of Ireland and Coleraine University in the United Kingdom. In the study by Noone et al. [ 2 ] it was found that dispositional mindfulness facilitates critical thinking. While in the research of Spadaro and Hunker [ 38 ] it was found that after 8 weeks of practicing mindfulness online, nursing students in the United States reduced anxiety and stress. They also increased mindfulness self-regulation skills.

There were three articles published in 2017. The first study was conducted by Ohio State University in the United States, the second by Ryerson University in Canada, and the third by the Department of Psychiatry at MoleMann Hospital for Mental Health in the Netherlands.

Using reflective writing and guided mindfulness meditations, Klatt [ 60 ] conducted research at Ohio University to increase awareness of students' life goals. According to Schwind et al. [ 37 ], mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation practice after eight weeks reduced anxiety, improved learning experience, increased sense of calm, concentration, and attention self-regulation skills among Canadian university students.

While in the research of Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ] it was found that after 8 weekly sessions of two hours daily using the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, students from the Netherlands reduced anxiety and negative emotional states. Improved mental health, life satisfaction and increased mindfulness skills were also observed. However, empathy was not increased.

In 2018, three articles were published. One by the University of Seville in Spain, one by the National University of Ireland and one where an international collaboration between 5 universities took place. The University of Southampton in the UK, the Helvetiapraxis Medical Centre in Switzerland, Kings College London in the UK, the Coburg University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Germany and the Poznan University of Medical Sciences in Poland.

Research conducted by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ] revealed that software engineering students at the University of Seville in Spain improved their academic self-efficacy after 6 weeks of practicing mindfulness.

Lynch et al. [ 25 ] evaluated mindfulness-based coping with university life (MBCUL), an adaptation of the MBSR program. College students increased their mindfulness skills, decreased stress, anxiety, and depression after eight weeks. The study by Noone and Hogan [ 62 ] found that practicing mindfulness using the headspace mobile app for 6 weeks or 30 sessions increased dispositional mindfulness, but not critical thinking. Students at the National University of Ireland participated in this study.

There were three articles published in 2019. In the United Kingdom, Birmingham City University submitted the first study, in the United States, Lousville University submitted the second, and in Iceland, the University of Rhode Island submitted the third.

A study conducted by Dutt et al. [ 84 ] from the University of Birmingham has demonstrated that mindfulness reduces stress and helps to make better dietary decisions. The University of Rhode Island conducted a study in which Lemay et al. [ 63 ] found that after 6 weeks of practicing viyansa yoga, pharmacy students were able to increase their mindfulness skills and reduce their levels of stress and anxiety. Weingartner et al. [ 39 ] found that mindfulness and compassion training increased mindfulness skills, dispositional mindfulness, and empathy in medical students at Lousville University. As a result, interpersonal relationships, resilience, nonjudgmental acceptance, observational skills, and learning experiences were also improved.

In 2020, four papers were published. In the United States, there are four, one from the University of North Carolina, one from the University of Florida, one from Juiz de Fora in Brazil, and one from the Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

At the University of North Carolina, a slow sensory experience linked to meditation techniques is introduced in the modern dance program to improve concentration [ 64 ]. According to the study by Bóo et al. [ 27 ], mindfulness increases academic performance, emotional self-regulation, and self-awareness in the UK. However, Damião et al. [ 65 ] found no significant increase in mindfulness skills of medical students at the Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil, following a 6-week mindfulness training program. Stress, anxiety, or depression did not decrease. Quality of life and mental health also showed no change.

A study by Williams et al. [ 40 ] concluded that medical students at the University of Florida improved their mindfulness skills, perceived social support, empathy, and prosocial behavior after 11 weeks participating in the Promoting Resilience in Medicine (PRIMe) program, although they did not reduce stress. Behaviors characterized by empathy and prosociality. As a result, the general well-being and learning experience have also improved.

There were three articles published in 2021. First, the University of Manitoba in Canada, second, Bilkent University in Turkey, and third, Johns Hopkins University in the United States. Altay and Porter [ 4 ] found that mindfulness practice among design psychology students in Turkey increased non-judgmental acceptance, exploratory thinking, creative thinking, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, and empathy.

An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Headspace mobile application was conducted by Carullo et al. [ 33 ]. Over the course of four months, anesthesiology and medical students from the United States practiced mindfulness. Depression levels were reduced and personal accomplishments were increased. The level of emotional exhaustion nor the level of depersonalization burnout, however, did not improve. Based on research conducted by Litwiller et al. [ 21 ] among college students in Canada, mindfulness, meditation, Tai Chi, yoga, exercise, and animal therapy have been found to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and negative mood.

The year 2022 saw the publication of nine papers. The first was completed by the Aix-Marseille University in France, the second by the Department of Anthropology at the University of Missouri in the United States, and the third by the University of Central Arkansas in the United States in collaboration with the University of Missouri. It was also submitted by the University of Illinois in the United States, Kirikkale University in Turkey, Arizona State University in the United States, the University of Seville in Spain, Brock University in Canada, and the University of Lisbon in Portugal.

Researchers in Turkey found that mindfulness practice increases life satisfaction among nursing students. According to Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ], mindfulness enhanced academic performance, productivity, task quality, and academic speed in Spanish students. Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] found that stress, anxiety, and depression were reduced in their research. The ability of French university students to regulate their attention did not improve, despite improvements in their well-being.

Researchers at Arizona State University found that mindfulness practice increased concentration, non-judgmental acceptance, and resilience among arts and design students. An opinion survey conducted by Klonoff-Cohen [ 67 ] revealed that college students in Illinois believe meditation and mindfulness exercises are effective coping mechanisms. The study by Sensiper [ 26 ] from the Anthropology Department concluded that after 10 weeks of structured in-class meditations, mindfulness exercises, contemporary text readings, and reflective writing, college students exhibited reduced anxiety, improved well-being, increased emotional self-regulation, concentration, and dispositional mindfulness.

As part of the research conducted by Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ], the University of Lisbon conducted a self-study on emotional education. Teachers evaluated the students’ portfolios in order to identify recurrent problems, and students evaluated mindfulness practices, collective and individual projects.

Strickland et al. [ 68 ] reported that mindfulness combined with a modified version of Dr. Robert Boice’s blocked writers program increased positive mood and resilience to stress and anxiety in students and teachers in higher education.

According to Woloshyn et al. [ 31 ], mindful writing stimulates creative thinking, increases empathy and prosocial behavior in higher education students and teachers in Canada. A positive emotional state can also be achieved through non-judgmental acceptance, increased self-awareness, self-compassion, and non-judgmental acceptance. In addition, it enhances well-being and the learning experience.

Six papers have been published in 2023. One by the University of Rome in Italy, one by Griffith University in Australia, another is the result of a collaboration between the University of South Carolina and Winthrop University both in the United States; and another due to collaboration between the Institute of Psychology of Lorand University in Hungary, the University of Vienna and the University of Artois in France.

One paper is the result of a collaboration between the University of the West of England in United Kingdom, and Dongguk University in South Korea. And another article was the result of a collaboration between University of Limoges, University of Montpellier and University of Paris Cité in France and University of Brussels in Belgium.

In the research by Fagioli et al. [ 32 ] University students in Italy practice mindfulness online for 28 days. An improved sense of belonging increased academic self-efficacy and self-regulation of attention skills were observed. In the study by García et al. [ 69 ], mindfulness was practiced for 1 week, 5 min daily. This exercise reduced anxiety, increased physical activity and improved sleep in United States students. Nagy et al. [ 70 ] found that mindfulness practice can increase persistence in those with a strong disposition toward a growth mindset or mindfulness.

In the research of Hagège et al. [ 71 ] it was found that the Meditation-Based Ethics of Responsibility (MBER) program had a positive impact on sense of responsibility and convergent and divergent creative writing tasks in undergraduate science students. In undergraduate music therapy students, it was found that eight weeks of practicing mindfulness can reduce stress and improve mindfulness and well-being [ 72 ]. While Pearson’s [ 73 ] looks for strategies on how mindfulness can be introduced into law education programs in Australia.

So far in 2024, three papers have been published. One by the Virginia Tech College of engineering. Another by the collaboration of Idaho State University and the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, in the United States. Another by Kaohsiung Medical University and Meiho University, both from Taiwan.

In the research of Giesler et al. [ 74 ] the Caring Action Leadership Mindfulness model is proposed to increase mental health and sense of belonging in undergraduate social work students. In the study by Liu et al. [ 75 ] it was found that practicing mindfulness for 50 min a week for 8 weeks reduced stress and increased mindfulness skills in nursing students. On the other hand, Martini et al. [ 76 ] found that although most engineering students after practicing mindfulness experienced a reduction in perceived stress, a sense of calm, increased energy, and greater concentration, other students who expressed feeling more tired and distressed after meditation practice.

3.4 Book chapters

Book chapters are rare. One by Queen Margaret University in 2015 and one by the University of Surrey in 2020, both UK universities. In the Oberski et al. [ 35 ] study, it was documented that mindfulness in college students allows for increased information retention and a positive emotional state. In Kilner-Johnson and Udofia’s [ 77 ] research, techniques for incorporating mindfulness in the humanities in higher education are proposed.

On the other hand, only one book was published by the University of Groningen in the Netherlands in 2021. This work addresses the benefits of incorporating mindfulness into higher education courses. It documents the results of the Munich model named mindfulness and meditation in the university context. It also includes practical exercises with instructions for implementation in educational institutions.

3.6 Conferences

Three conferences have been published from the United States. One in 2006 by the University of Arkansas, another by the University of Denver Colorado in 2021, and another by Northeastern University in 2023. Holland [ 6 ] presents a course developed and implemented in some universities in the United States through his personal experience, while Wu [ 41 ] states that sonic meditation for higher education students improves the learning experience. In the study by Grahame et al. [ 78 ] it was found that daily mindfulness practice enables engineering undergraduates to reduce stress.

3.7 Reviews

Six reviews have been published. One was in 2004 by Southeastern Illinois University in the United States. In 2017 there were 2 publications. One by the University of Portland in the United States and one by LaTrobe University in Australia. In 2019 the Medical Department of the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands also published a review. In 2021, a collaboration between three UK universities—Queens University, the University of Suffolk and the University of York was published. In 2024 another was published by Padjadjaran University in Indonesia.

Holland [ 79 ] outlines how mindfulness can be incorporated into higher education and the benefits this can bring for students with disabilities and promote health. McConville et al. [ 33 ] found that mindfulness reduces stress, anxiety, and depression. It also increases mindfulness skills, empathy, a positive emotional state, and academic self-efficacy. Stillwell et al. [ 80 ] found that both the MBSR program, yoga, breath work, meditation, and mindfulness in nursing students reduced stress.

Breedvelt et al. [ 81 ] evaluated the effectiveness of meditation, yoga, and mindfulness on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in college students. They concluded that most publications regarding mindfulness have a high risk of bias, are of poor quality, and do not specify which technique provides the benefits. For it is unclear whether it is mindfulness, yoga or another meditation technique that is effective. McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] found that mindfulness practice in nursing students reduces stress, increases clinical academic performance and self-awareness. In the research of Yosep et al. [ 82 ] it was found that digital mindfulness through audios and videos is effective in improving the mental health of university students.

What are the countries where mindfulness and higher education students are most widely published?

Based on the description of the universities in question three, Fig.  3 illustrates the countries and locations where publications on mindfulness and higher education students have been published.

Geographical location of countries where mindfulness research has been conducted. Font: Own elaboration in the Mapchart application [ 83 ]

As can be seen, the United States leads in mindfulness research and higher education students. It is followed by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Spain. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country on the list.

On the other hand, although the research is carried out in 22 countries, the collaboration networks include 14 countries. Figure  4 shows the collaboration networks detected.

Cross-country collaboration networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

Figure  4 shows a collaborative network of 14 countries composed of four nodes. One is formed by Austria, Belgium, Canada, France and Hungary in red. In green by the United Kingdom, Turkey, South Korea and Ireland. In blue, Germany, Switzerland and Poland and in yellow, Australia and the Netherlands.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice for higher education students’ mental health?

Mindfulness practice reduces stress [ 21 , 25 , 28 , 33 , 38 , 59 , 63 , 66 , 80 , 84 ] anxiety [ 21 , 25 , 26 , 33 , 37 , 38 , 61 , 63 , 66 , 69 ] and depression [ 21 , 25 , 33 , 34 , 66 ].

Mindfulness reduces negative mood [ 21 , 22 , 61 ]. As well as increasing positive mood [ 31 , 33 , 35 , 68 ]. In research by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ], mindfulness was found to reduce emotional exhaustion and depersonalization burnout. While Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ], that it improves mental health. Schwind et al. [ 37 ] found that it increases the feeling of calm.

3.8 Stress reduction

In the case of Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] and Spadaro & Hunker [ 38 ] the mindfulness practice was conducted online and lasted for 17 days and 8 weeks respectively. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] study was also practiced online using the Koru program. Although the duration of this is not specified.

In Lynch et al. [ 25 ] research, the MBSR program was used for 8 weeks. While Stiwell et al. [ 80 ] the same program was used, although the duration of time is not specified. Of the five studies in which mindfulness is practiced traditionally through guided meditations, only one, that of Lemay et al. [ 63 ] indicates that the program lasted 6 weeks in 60-min sessions. The other investigations do not indicate weeks or practice sessions.

According to Yogeswaran and Morr [ 16 ] online mindfulness practice can be effective in addressing stress. However, at least for medical students, the evidence was not sufficient to prove its efficacy in decreasing symptoms of depression and anxiety. In contrast, the study by Ahmad et al. [ 12 ] found that, among university students in Toronto, Canada, internet-based Cognitive Behavioral Mindfulness Therapy interventions could reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress after 8 weeks.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on higher education students’ academic performance?

Mindfulness increases clinical performance [ 28 ] and academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ] and critical thinking [ 2 ].

It increases productivity, task quality and academic speed [ 8 ]. As well, it also increases academic self-efficacy [ 9 , 32 , 33 ], improves the learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ], and improves observation skills [ 39 ].

Coupled with the above, it improves information retention [ 35 ], increases concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], and attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ]. Another finding in relation to academic performance is that mindfulness can increase persistence in people with a strong disposition toward mindfulness or a growth mindset [ 70 ].

3.9 What benefits does mindfulness practice have on higher education students?

Mindfulness practice increased perceived social support [ 31 , 40 ], improves well-being [ 3 , 22 , 26 , 31 , 40 , 66 ] and improve dietary decision-making [ 84 ]. It also increases sense of belonging [ 32 ], life satisfaction [ 61 , 85 ], physical activity [ 69 ]; and improves sleep quality [ 22 , 59 , 69 ]. Damião´s et al. [ 65 ] research showed no improvements in quality of life after the intervention.

Mindfulness allows increasing self-compassion [ 31 , 59 ], sense of personal achievement [ 34 ], self-regulation of thoughts, feelings and behaviors [ 3 , 26 , 27 ]. It stimulates the development of resilience for stress and anxiety management [ 36 , 39 , 68 ]; and it helps to manage the judgmental voice. That is, it facilitates non-judgmental acceptance [ 4 , 31 , 36 , 39 ].

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on mindfulness and prosocial behavior in higher education students?

Mindfulness allows for increases in self-awareness [ 27 , 28 , 31 ], sensory and spatial awareness [ 4 ], mindfulness skills [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 ] and disposition toward mindfulness [ 3 , 26 , 39 , 68 ].

It also stimulates prosocial behavior [ 40 ], collectivism [ 31 , 57 ]. It increases empathy [ 4 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 ] and benevolence [ 57 ]. It improves interpersonal relationships [ 31 , 39 , 40 ], clarity of thought [ 22 ]; and increases the sense of universalism and transcendence [ 57 ].

Is virtual reality the most effective way to promote mindfulness among higher education students?

Virtual reality could facilitate mindfulness habituation. In the study by Navarrete et al. [ 86 ] conducted with university medical students in Valencia, Spain, it was found that those who participated in the virtual reality program meditated twice as long as those who only practiced through regular guided meditation. Along these lines, Pascual et al. [ 48 ] found that health professionals who practiced meditation completed more sessions than those who did not use VR.

Likewise, in the study by Modrego-Alarcón et al. [ 15 ] and Miller et al. [ 49 ] it was found that VR students acquired greater immersion and mindfulness practice. Therefore, immersive virtual reality environments favor habituation toward mindfulness practice.

4 Discussion

The benefits of mindfulness in higher education students at the psychoemotional level have been widely documented [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 87 ]. One of the most frequently highlighted benefits of mindfulness in higher education students is the positive effect on self-esteem, as evidenced by the findings of several studies [ 88 , 89 ]. Additionally, mindfulness has been shown to reduce stress levels [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 , 90 ]. These types of benefits have also been observed in other demographic groups. For example, a study conducted by Chandna et al. [ 91 ] with an adult population demonstrated that mindfulness practice was associated with significant improvements in self-esteem and self-efficacy.

As previously stated, mindfulness practice has been identified as a potential solution to the emotional difficulties experienced by higher education students in the current context [ 12 ]. The positive effects of mindfulness on students’ psychoemotional well-being have been demonstrated in numerous studies [ 66 , 67 , 85 ]. It can thus be inferred that these benefits will also affect other areas of students’ lives, reducing their difficulties both psychoemotionally and academically, for example.

In terms of academic performance, the findings of Bóo et al. [ 27 ], Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ] and McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] are worthy of note. This is not exclusive to students in higher education. A study by Artika et al. [ 92 ] with a sample of 469 secondary school students indicates that mindfulness is a significant predictor of student participation in the school context, with an associated increase in participation through improved self-esteem. In contrast, Cordeiro et al. [ 93 ] conducted an experimental study with a control group of third-grade students and found that mindfulness significantly enhanced cognitive flexibility and handwriting fluency.

Prosocial behaviour has been identified as another key area of interest by a number of studies [ 4 , 22 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 57 ]. A study by Akhavan et al. [ 90 ] demonstrates the efficacy of mindfulness practice in a sample of teachers, including enhanced relationships with students and reduced stress.

With regard to the manner in which these mindfulness programmes can be supported, the utilisation of VR has been found to confer considerable benefits [ 15 , 48 , 49 , 86 ]. This is primarily attributable to the degree of adherence to the programme. In their seminal work, Friedlander et al. [ 94 ] introduced the concept of the ‘therapeutic alliance’ to describe this phenomenon of patient adherence in a therapeutic context. They posited that it represents a crucial factor in the efficacy of any therapeutic intervention. In this case, although it is an educational context, the effects of such adherence are similar; therefore, it is worthwhile to explore the potential of the VR format as a key factor for the success of mindfulness.

5 Conclusions

In response to the research questions initially posed, it can be stated that they have been addressed, resulting in comprehensive data pertaining to the volume, language and year of publication of the various research projects. It is notable that there has been a significant increase in publications over the past four years, as well as the prevalence of the article format. As is to be expected, the majority of publications have been in English. It is also evident that universities in countries with an Anglo-Saxon tradition have published the most research on this topic, with the USA being the country with the highest volume of studies.

In answer to questions 6, 7, 8 and 9, it might be stated that mindfulness practice has been shown to promote mental health, academic performance, awareness, prosocial behaviour and well-being in student populations. Mindfulness practice might promote mental health, and well-being in the student population. The positive impact of this practice is not limited to how it is performed. That is, whether it is through traditional guided meditations, mobile applications, videos, online exercises or virtual reality.

However, according to the available literature, habituation is easier to acquire. Therefore, additional benefits can be obtained by increasing the number of sessions completed or minutes of practice. In answer to question 10, in studies where VR was effective for mindfulness practice, students practiced longer than those in the control group. Therefore, VR could be a more effective way to introduce contemplative science by introducing meditation techniques in higher education.

The objective has been fulfilled by analysing the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behaviour of university students, as well as identifying the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. It is also noteworthy that these benefits are highly relevant, and it would be beneficial to introduce mindfulness practice in the context of higher education.

6 Limitation and implication

One of the issues highlighted is the lack of comprehensive data that would allow for a more thorough comparison. For example, aspects such as the geographical location of the study subjects or the duration of the mindfulness programme applied mean that there are a large number of studies whose effectiveness is not entirely clear. At the same time, this is a topic that is becoming increasingly relevant, but there is still no consensus among researchers.

With regard to prospective implications, it is evident that the implementation of mindfulness in educational settings offers substantial advantages. Consequently, higher education institutions should facilitate the availability of structured mindfulness programmes for students. Undoubtedly, this would prove to be a valuable addition to their psycho-emotional and academic development.

Data availability

The author confirms that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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The role of social inclusion in restoring communal rangelands in southern africa: a systematic review of approaches, challenges, and outcomes.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study design and framework, 2.2. literature search strategy, 2.3. inclusion and exclusion criteria, 2.4. selection of studies and data extraction, 2.5. data analysis, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. overview of included studies.

3.2. Approaches to Restoration in Communal Rangelands

3.3. Challenges in Social Inclusion and Governance

3.4. Impact of Social Inclusion Projects on Ecological Resilience and Human Well-Being

3.5. key themes generated from the word cloud, 3.6. key themes generation from the co-occurrence networks, 3.7. contribution to the field and potential limitations, 3.8. identified gaps in the literature and suggestions for future research, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Slayi, M.; Zhou, L.; Thamaga, K.H.; Nyambo, P. The Role of Social Inclusion in Restoring Communal Rangelands in Southern Africa: A Systematic Review of Approaches, Challenges, and Outcomes. Land 2024 , 13 , 1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091521

Slayi M, Zhou L, Thamaga KH, Nyambo P. The Role of Social Inclusion in Restoring Communal Rangelands in Southern Africa: A Systematic Review of Approaches, Challenges, and Outcomes. Land . 2024; 13(9):1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091521

Slayi, Mhlangabezi, Leocadia Zhou, Kgabo Humphrey Thamaga, and Patrick Nyambo. 2024. "The Role of Social Inclusion in Restoring Communal Rangelands in Southern Africa: A Systematic Review of Approaches, Challenges, and Outcomes" Land 13, no. 9: 1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091521

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Resilience and entrepreneurship: a systematic review

Andrew Kweku Conduah Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Funding Acquisition, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Mary Naana Essiaw (PhD) Roles: Conceptualization, Resources

• Resilience as a function of entrepreneurial individuals or firms,
• Resilience generating entrepreneurial intentions,
• Entrepreneurial behavior boosting organizational resilience and,
• Resilience in the framework of entrepreneurial failure,
• Entrepreneurship and culture,
• Resilience as a process of recovery and transformation.

Entrepreneurship, Resilience, Entrepreneurial Resilience, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, Resiliency.

Introduction

An entrepreneur is a person that has a unique talent for recognizing opportunities and has the intelligence to mobilize funds, normally from others with the aim of exploiting identified opportunities ( Sánchez, 2011 ). Entrepreneurship is gaining traction because entrepreneurs have the power to create employment and contribute immensely to the economic development of nations through the establishment of new firms ( Tang & Koveos, 2004 ). Entrepreneurs, through their economic expansion activities, identify and exploit new products, processes or markets that tend to be confronted by multiple obstacles and uncertainties with respect to outcomes. Also, in entrepreneurial environments, decision making is often shrouded with errors or misjudgments mainly arising out of the Pareto principle or imperfect market information ( Carson, 2000 ). This usually result in the “muddle through” or incremental approach in planning requiring entrepreneurs to adjust their goals and strategies in order to stay afloat as they explore new ventures.

Markman et al. (2004) stressed the importance of resilience as a valuable advantage to aid entrepreneurs in overcoming repeated obstacles that are usually faced with varied uncertain outcomes. Therefore, entrepreneurs are seen as resilient when in the process of exploring or exploiting opportunities and the unexpected happens, they are either able to overcome the challenge or modify it accordingly and take advantage of the new situation. Resilience as a construct is widely recognized to be colored with complexities that create significant challenges for researchers when they attempt to develop operational definitions of the term ‘resilience’ ( Luthar et al. , 2003 ). On this, there exist so many scales for quantifying resilience, but they have not received any form of universal validation ( Windle et al. , 2011 ). As such, scholars who conduct studies on resilience have very little evidence to justify their choices of certain resilience measuring scales and sometimes may adopt scales that are relatively inappropriate for the study of a specific population.

In their writing at the turn of this millennium, Bruyat and Julien (2001 cited in Kinoti et al. , 2017 ) noted the relevant role of entrepreneurship as well as its challenges. The Small Business Administration’s Report titled, Distorting the Interest of Small Business ( Shapiro & Goodwin, 2012 ) noted that about 66% of businesses last beyond two years and about 50% of businesses last for at least five years. In consonance with this, Brownlee (2014) , as cited Javadian et al. (2018) , revealed that closer to 80% of startups flop due to a series of factors, such as entrepreneurs who do not have mastery over industry pricing conventions and have very little training when it comes to record-keeping. Brownlee also identified a lack of expertise in business management such as poor lending habits, which accounts for close to 76% of the reasons for the failure of small-scale businesses. Correspondingly, the term entrepreneurial resilience can be defined in line with the suggestion of Welsh (2014) as a rendition for any experience of recuperation or “bouncing back” after misfortune at any geographical or specific time scale it could be a person, group, an enterprise, a community, commerce, or ecosphere. Researchers in the entrepreneurship discourse domain can choose to redefine the various scales of measurement as far as research on resilience is concerned thereby establishing a framework of definite cognition for the experiences of resilience, as in the context of this study.

A brief history of resilience

Resilience is a very well-known phenomenon in the field of psychology and for a long time the concept has been viewed negatively by psychologists ( Shae-Leigh & Nagash, 2019 ). Not long after World War II, the National Institutes of Health started to sponsor explorations related to psychiatric disorders. Psychotherapists became devoted historians of brainsickness investigating all aspects while constructing complex domains and sub-domains of disorders ( Reivich & Shatte, 2002 ).

Thus, historically, researchers have concentrated on the problem by focusing on the medical model that spread to other scope on this subject. Scholars construct resilience as coping factors that enable one to overcome an assemblage of risk components like family affliction problem, ill health, infection, and long-term destitution. The focus here was a deficit model structured to get an understanding of processes through which individuals bridge the gaps between their shortfalls or risk factors and the steps that need to be taken to switch to survival mode. In 1988, the president of the American Psychological Association, Martin Seligman, admonished a shift in thinking from the deficit model to the strength model otherwise known as positive psychology ( Reivich & Shatte, 2002 ). This was a paradigm shift that aimed at (1) widening knowledge on human strengths through the evolution of codification frameworks as well as techniques to quantify these strengths and (2) to invest this awareness into appropriate schemes and support-systems to boost the capacities of individual participants rather than restore their shortcomings ( Reivich & Shatte, 2002 ). According to Pearsall (2003) positive psychology emphasizes three dimensions: positive experiences, like cheerfulness, satisfaction, delight, and contentment; positive individual traits, such as in the form of personality traits, skills, and capabilities; and positive institutions , including households, educational establishments, commercial enterprises, social factions, and humanity as a whole.

In consonance with the above and in the field of psychology, global attention on resilience as an individual trait gained traction when Werner and Smith published their (1992) paper entitled Overcoming the Odds: High Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. Here, the researchers closely monitored the growth of some 505 children who were indigenous to Kauai Island, Hawaii. This study was conducted for over three decades. The study discovered that closer to 75% of male and female children in this group were said to be high risk children due to their early exposure to poverty and experience of average to extreme levels of postnatal distress. Secondly, that the family environment these children lived in was dominated by various levels of conflicts, marital dissolutions, and parental alcoholism or psychiatric disorders ( Werner & Smith, 1992 ). The above findings tilt towards the deficits model of psychology. Interestingly, the study revealed that about one-third of this category of high-risk children, developed to be efficient young men and women adored by their fellows, who worked well, socialized properly, and had great prospects. Also, none of the children in this category had learning or behavioral problems during childhood or adolescence. They were successful both in their schooling and personal lives, taking advantage of all opportunities presented to them after high school. Werner and Smith (1992) concluded that their work is a microcosm of hope for those plagued with adversity. Given a society, people with recurrent misfortunes have the ability to move beyond the sustenance condition, progress through sustenance modes, sail through the recuperation mode, and acquire the needed vigor to progress into the realm of resilience.

Following Werner and Smith's work, many researchers who work in the realms of positive psychology followed and continue to support, with practical discoveries, the conception that resilience is far from being a fixed-trait phenomenon. Indeed, it is expansive, can be acquired, and be imparted as well. Therefore, entrepreneurs can adopt this expansive evolutionary model in their careers and individual lives.

Rationale of the present study

We propose to conduct a review of the extant literature that intercept resilience and entrepreneurship. Current literature shows that resilience is personified as individual traits of entrepreneurs owing firms or businesses. However, we take a more holistic approach to bring out all the various positive and negative dimensions of entrepreneurship and resilience.

I. Investigate how entrepreneurial behaviors support business resilience.

II. Refine the concept of entrepreneurial resilience as presented in extant literature.

III. Establish/identify the cultural factors that promote resilience of entrepreneurs in developed regions and developing regions.

Systematic literature review (SLR)

This review used the SLR method to study works that explored the interface between resilience and entrepreneurship from January 2010 to November 2019. A literature review of this nature (SLR) is characterized by “explicit, rigorous, and transparent methodology” ( Greenhalgh et al ., 2004 : 582). The SLR approach is regularly employed to study the authority of knowledge connected to a subject matter ( Ford et al. , 2011 ). The motive for this style is that, the SLR approach is said to be meticulous/thorough, structured/organized and robust/vigorous ( Williams & Krasniqi, 2018 ). In this way, it becomes suitable to determine emerging trends in the literature. Additional potency of SLR is its knack to discover niche and offer facts from thorough reviews with empiricism found in a certain literature databases, using clearly spelt out research objectives, aims, and techniques ( Williams & Krasniqi, 2018 ).

To achieve such goals, firstly, an outline is provided of how the collection of existing literature (mostly published works) which constitute the bedrock of the study, was carried out. Secondly, an illustration of how the six distinct exploration streams were derived is also provided to expatiate on how scholars systematically engage the extant literature and make reports on the features that best explain each engagement.

In this review, the procedure adopted follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses ( Moher et al ., 2015 ).

Literature search strategy

To ensure a wide coverage of the literature on resilience and entrepreneurship, both qualitative and quantitative studies were examined. Underlining the motivation for the choice of these two methods was that it boasts of having the ability to discover features that either one of the approaches may have missed ( Bryman, 2017 ). Qualitative research is often keen on exhaustive understanding of the subjective experience of participants and behavior of particular groups in given contexts. Yet, this manner of research has potential drawbacks because sometimes, both objectivity and reliability are lost in an attempt to find causality of the findings in relation to other contexts. In contrast, quantitative research is usually able to draw more generalized conclusions about behavior in populations and provide answers to specific research questions. The criticism is that it overlooks the uniqueness of people’s standpoint, or human experience and behavior, giving basic answers drawn on variables that can only be quantifiable.

Both qualitative and quantitative research papers were searched in the following databases: Emerald Insight, Ebscohost and Google Scholar between January 2010 to December 2019. These were selected for their broad appeal and up-to-date cross-disciplinary scholarly works ( Spires et al. , 2014 ). In gathering the data for the review, the focus was on works published between 1st of January 2010 to December, 2019. This period was selected because it aptly portrays the concept of resilience intercepting with entrepreneurship in its burgeoning state. Emerald Insight happens to be one of the recognized publishers of academic journals and books in the fields of management, business and education, library studies, health care and engineering. Ebscohost is also a well-known reservoir research database for academic research, electronic-journals, magazines subscription, electronic-books and discovery service for academic libraries, public libraries among others. Google Scholar has an array of literature from various disciplines and is freely available. Thus, by using these three databases, the review adequately captured what existing research, especially in the field of business, say on resilience and entrepreneurship.

Search terms

Within each database, a combination of the following key words or bookmarked exploration terminology was applied “entrepre* AND resilien*” (the exact outcome of the search depended on what type of search engine used) to recognize publications that have the terms resilience, entrepreneurship, as well as related expressions or words like entrepreneurial, entrepreneur, resiliency or resilient in the titles of the publications, keywords, or abstracts. The scope was limited to works published in English between January 2010 and December 2019.

Study selection

Criteria for inclusion and exclusion

The review included studies that were found to pertain to the intersection between resilience and entrepreneurship. The concentration was on original papers and articles that had been peer reviewed. Articles selected were only in English and passed ethical reviews in their respective institutions to ensure conformity with what has been outlined in the Helsinki Declaration ( Rickham, 1964 ). Limitation was not placed on search for publication to any specific academic field. Synopsis of the papers collected were studied (or sometimes the complete work was studied, especially in situations where the classification was tentative) in order to authenticate the relevance of the paper to the prospective review. This manual searching was used to make a decision as to whether or not to use such a work as part of the final data. The basic variable for determining the incorporation or elimination of a particular paper in the data set was the extent to which the work discusses the interface between entrepreneurship and resilience. Detailed criteria for exclusion were: studies with multiple publications and those that actually failed to explore resilience and entrepreneurship in the course of their investigation and articles that were in languages other than English. All publications that were selected as part of the assorted data for this study either openly establish that resilience has influence on entrepreneurship or contrarily assert that entrepreneurship influences resilience. On the other hand, works that were discarded mostly did not make any correlation between the two phenomena or did not attempt to do any comprehensive discussion of the works at all. Madichie and Hinson (2013) who stated a participant’s “resilience as a mother” in their abstract, but, do not discuss resilience (or related terms) in the rest of their study is one of such discarded papers. Similarly, resilience generally just stipulated the sustenance or recuperation from commercial crisis, without giving explanations on the role of entrepreneurship in the entire process. In all, 1,400 research works were excluded and all of them either did not establish a link between the two concepts or the discussion was quite weak. We search using the method reported in the PRISMA flow diagram ( Figure 1 ) ( Conduah, 2022 ) to reduce the element of bias and to comply with all outlined steps. The reviewers went to search engines such as SAGE , emeraldinsight.com , Taylor and Francis , Research gate , Elsevier , and JSTOR and selected the applicable articles for analyses.

Figure 1. PRISMA chart showing the screening and selection process of publications.

Data were systematically extracted using a designed data extraction form based on the objectives of the study. For each publication, data extraction was conducted manually.

The details of retrieved articles subjected to abstract and full reading and the number included in the study are shown in Figure 1 .

Strictly going by the inclusion and exclusion procedure outlined above, the selected data was reviewed for the final analysis. The analytical process was in line with the Cochrane guidelines ( Higgins & Elliott, 2011 ). Accordingly, 32 scholarly works on resilience and entrepreneurship were selected and used as primary data for the final analysis.

Data collection and items

Data analysis and synthesis of studies

Meta-analysis was not performed in this review, due to the differing study designs employed by the articles chosen, example, quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. In addition, the studies included in the review differed widely in design, variables measured, data requirements and study objectives. For this reason, it was difficult to summarize and compare results from the studies. There were wide methodological differences across the studies selected for the review, so it was not possible to conduct a unified synthesis of their findings. Thus, the analysis was done using thematic and content analysis. Given the stark differences in the characteristics of the studies, the results of each study were described independently and comparisons, across similar conversations, were to generate common themes or research tributaries.

Each study was examined based on characteristics of the work and taken through the various codification processes particularly by putting the final data into categories. The categorization process was dependent on the frequencies of citation of distinctions for what Carpenter et al. (2001) refer to as “resilience of what to what?” According to them, the “of what” feature makes reference to the major stage of review, and also a concept the study sought to examine or discuss ( Babbie, 2014 ; Mirriam, 2009 ). Closer to the extensive literature on resilience, Rose’s (2004) study concentrated on entrepreneurial resilience on the individual level, organizational level, or on macro systemic group, regional, as well as economic levels. The current study tried to categorize the components based on the external circumstances in an attempt to satisfy the “resilient to what” question. As far as existing literature on resilience is concerned, extrinsic circumstances can be instantaneous or interim (for instance: earthquakes, flash flooding etc.) or entail perennial misadventure and step-by-step revolution (for instance: economic recessions, liquidity crisis, tight competition or global warming). It must be stated however that the “to what” dimension has not been given any detailed examination in the data collected. For instance, researchers tend to only state that resilience constitutes an element in overcoming entrepreneurial setbacks and achieving financial prosperity.

As a way of solidifying the themes in the publications, an extra dimension to the analysis was added to concentrate on the duration before the disruptive incidents and associated traits took place and capabilities such as the critical capitals to brave the shocks or to adapt to new situations were revealed. With this done, it set the stage to rationalize the two concepts of resilience in the extant scholarship firstly as a capability to endure adversity or to persevere during difficulty and secondly, as the adaptable ability to craftily and agilely deal with and to change steadily over time ( Bullough & Renko, 2013 ; Linnenluecke, 2017 ; Corner et al., 2017 ; Fisher et al ., 2016 ; Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ).

Also, some publications discussed the manner in which persons, organizations, or group-level establishments such as cities and regions respond to disruptive events, both of internal or external nature. These papers conceptualized resilience from the process standpoint and considered varied ways actors relied on an inherent trait or ability as well as capacity to switch into action ( Williams et al ., 2013 , Linnenluecke, 2017 ; Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ; Wall & Bellamy, 2019 ).

The papers in Table 1 showed the multifaceted construct of entrepreneurialism and the coding of the literature relied on underlying meaning placed on entrepreneurship. A number of researchers adopted broader definitions that entailed all proprietors-managers ( Audretsch, 2012 ; Larson et al ., 2016 ; Ayala & Manzano, 2014 ; Sahin et al ., 2018 ), new venture founders ( Jin, 2017 ), SMEs ( Branicki et al ., 2017 ), and family firms ( Rodrigue et al. , 2017 ). Besides, few of the papers focused on concepts such as entrepreneurial worldview or behaviors that center on beliefs that make references to the concept of innovation, creativity as well as exploitative and explorative tendencies and contingencies ( Alexandre et al ., 2019 ; Korber & McNaughton, 2017 ; Yufeng et al ., 2017 ).

Table 1. Articles selected with objectives and main findings.

General features and types of studies

A total of 32 scholarly articles were included in the review ( Table 1 ); 11 studies (33%) were from Europe, followed by 9 studies from Australia (22%), 7 studies from North America (21%), 5 studies from Asia (15%) and finally 1 study from sub-Saharan Africa (3%). Furthermore, 17 studies (51%) were quantitative, 14 studies (42%) were qualitative, whereas 2 studies were mixed method. Ultimately, 32 articles that satisfied the inclusion criteria and published from January 2010 to December 2019 in English, featured in this systematic review. These studies included 21 (63.63%) review articles and 12 (36.36%) original research articles.

1. Resilience as a function of individual entrepreneurs or firms,

2. Resilience generating entrepreneurial intentions,

3. Entrepreneurial behavior boosting organizational resilience,

4. Resilience in the framework of entrepreneurship failure,

5. Entrepreneurship and culture,

6. Resilience as an exercise of recuperation and transfiguration.

Research alignments

With particular reference to the three basic features Firstly, definitions that entailed proprietor or managers and the second feature is new venture founders. Thirdly, entrepreneurial world views of innovation, creativity, exploitative or explorative tendencies and contingencies. Thus, the distinction at the micro level of the what dimension of resilience the researcher wants to explain something about. The resilience of (entrepreneurial) firms at the meso level and macro level systems such as communities, regions or economies stated at the data synthesis stage were applied to classify the data. The study identified six dialogues that seem to centre their discussions on the interface between entrepreneurship and resilience. The full list of papers for each stream can be found in Box 1 attached as appendix.

Box 1. Exploration stream of papers.

Resilience as a function of entrepreneurial individuals or firms

Dahles H & Susilowati 2015 , Ballough A. & Renko M. 2013 , Lin et al., 2017 , Corner et al. 2017 , Shadbolt, 2016 , Fisher et al., 2016 , Ingram Claire et al ., 2015 , Linnenluecke Martina K. 2017 , Ayala J.C. & Manzano G. 2014 , Audretsch, 2012 , Larson et al ., 2016 , Sahin et al ., 2018 , Javadian et al ., 2018 , Rodrigue et al. , 2017 , Korber S. & McNaughton R. B. 2017 .

Resilience generating entrepreneurial intentions

Lin et al., 2017 , Corner et al. 2017 , Fisher et al., 2016 Ballough A. & Renko M. 2013 , Rodrigue et al. , 2017 , Yufeng et al ., 2017 , Branicki et al ., 2017 , Hedner et al., 2011 , and Wall T., & Ballamy L. 2019 .

Entrepreneurial behaviour boosting organisational resilience

Ballough A. & Renko M. 2013 , Lin et al., 2017 , Corner et al. , 2017 , Wall T., & Ballamy L. 2019 , Korber S. & McNaughton R. B. 2017 , Branicki et al ., 2017 , Rodrigue et al. , 2017 , Larson et al ., 2016 , Sahin et al ., 2018 , Jin, C. H., 2017 and Ayala & Manzano, 2014 .

Entrepreneurship and culture

Corner et al., 2017 , Javadian et al ., 2018 , Korber S. & McNaughton R. B. 2017 , Santos et al ., 2019 , Yufeng et al ., 2017 , Kshetri, 2011 , Hedner et al., 2011 and Sanchez J.C. et al ., 2012 .

Resilience in the framework of entrepreneurial failure

Rodrigue et al. , 2017 , Branicki et al ., 2017 , Linnenluecke Martina K. 2017 , Yufeng et al ., 2017 , Wall T., & Ballamy L. 2019 , Korber S. & McNaughton R. B. 2017 , Ballough A. & Renko M. 2013 , Corner et al., 2017 , Ingram Claire et al ., 2015 , Kshetri, 2011 , Madichie et al ., 2008 , Manifield R.C. & Newey L.R. 2017 and Alexandre et al ., 2019 .

Resilience as a process of recovery and transformation .

Ayala J.C. & Manzano G. 2014 , Ayala & Manzano, 2014 , Manifield R.C. & Newey L.R. 2017 , Santos et al ., 2019 , Corner et al., 2017 , Korber S. & McNaughton R. B. 2017 , Ingram Claire et al ., 2015 and Alexandre et al ., 2019 .

Exploration stream (1): Resilience as a function of individual entrepreneurs or firms

A significant number of authors (n=14) in the articles reviewed sought to discover features that stimulate or augment the inherent resilience of entrepreneurs in general. Entrepreneurial resilience, as far as the discussion of this data is concerned, is considered as a pre-condition that aids entrepreneurs or firms to control upheavals, calamities and exigencies. These disturbances are closely related to what extant literature on resilience generally refer to as “vulnerability” while the other side of the coin is referred to as “preparedness” ( Lin et al. , 2017 ; Bullough & Renko, 2013 ; Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ; Corner et al. (2017) . It also postulates that entrepreneurs (whether at the individual or firm levels) that are resilient usually are more prepared to combat disturbances, which is a basic pre-determinant of entrepreneurial success ( Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ; Corner et al. , 2017 ), translating into the financial and managerial performance of such firms. Bullough and Renko (2013) in their studies titled “Entrepreneurial action during challenging times” submitted that, aiding activities that aim at developing prospective entrepreneurial leaders helps promote behaviors that are required for an economy to thrive. Again, Ayala and Manzano (2014) submitted that entrepreneurial resilience has three dimensions namely, hardiness, resourcefulness and optimism concluding that these dimensions help predict entrepreneurial success.

Some papers, based on mental ideologies, conceptualize entrepreneurial resilience as a fusion of many personal attributes or features like conscientiousness, openness to experience, perseverance, optimism, resilience, emotional carrying capacity and extraversion, including entrepreneurial self- efficacy ( Chang-Hyun, 2017 ; Linnenluecke, 2017 ; Jin, 2017 ; Liñán et al. , 2011 ; Sahin et al ., 2018 ) or the entrepreneur’s emotional intelligence ( Korber & McNaughton, 2017 ; Susana et al ., 2019 ). Other papers discuss the entrepreneur’s social capital such as communal schemas and contracting practices, collective identity, trust and family models as well as support from friends that help entrepreneurs, especially newcomers, to tackle uncertainties ( Ingram Claire et al ., 2015 ; Larson et al ., 2016 ). It is clear from the extant literature that resilience is a function of entrepreneurial individuals and firms.

As far as the intermediate level analysis is concerned, most of the research in the data focused on issues of increase entrepreneurial mindset and behaviours in the resilience of entrepreneurial firms. They are the resources at the firm’s disposal to aid them navigate difficult or disruptive times. These resources include how to manage employee strengths (based on Clinical and Developmental Psychology), financial capital, the adaptability of business models, organizational response to environmental threats, organizational reliability and design principles that mitigate vulnerabilities associated with supply chain and other disruptions. Therefore, with a well calibrated supply chain embedded with design flexibility and redundancy alternatives, organizations can be collaterally resilient ( Maklan, 2012 ). While discussing a resilient supply chain design, Maklan (2012) submitted that resilience in supply chain in relation to the intercontinental economic financial challenges depends on the four resilience accomplishments of agility, momentum, exposure to information on time, and partnerships participants of the logistics network. These minimize negative repercussions on present and future events mainly in the area of income, pricing and conception or availability targets ( Linnenluecke, 2017 ; Manifield & Newey, 2017 ; Santos et al ., 2019 ; Ayala and Manzano, 2014 ; Lin et al. , 2017 ).

Conclusively, some of the publications in the data principally examined factors at the group-level that promote resilience among entrepreneurs at personal or organizational levels. A competitive commercial setting, for example, has the potential of weeding out most ineffective beginners who venture into the realm of entrepreneurship from business while the survivors are likely to grow resilient ( Biswas & Baptista, 2012 ). Some other researchers make reference to facilitative variables like collective identity in building resilience ( Ingram Claire et al ., 2015 ). Others make mention of family role models in molding resilient entrepreneurs ( Hedner et al. , 2011 ). Coaching and counseling sessions and seminars designed to improve the skills of entrepreneurs when it comes to managing adversities or business judgments of merchants are also discussed when infused into curriculum of educational institutions ( Bullough & Renko, 2013 ). Other researchers talk about trust and social values that yield shared understanding ( Larson et al ., 2016 ) amongst entrepreneurs. The final common strategy discussed are public strategies and agreement customs that promote resilience among groups of entrepreneurs ( Audretsch, 2012 ). These findings contrast dominant portrayals of successful entrepreneurs as egoistic and self-centered ( Jüttner & Maklan, 2011 ). It emerged that entrepreneurs that have reliance do show concern for one another and have respect for their interconnectivity. Contrastively, a number of researchers relied on literature related to psychology ( Jin, 2017 ) and define resilience as a person’s capability to combat or develop amidst challenges and crisis.

Others still conceptualized resilience as an outcome, as an act that has taken place, or something that a person lacks ( Corner et al. , 2017 ). Resilience in entrepreneurship is believed to be actualized when business actors are able to progress in the midst of all the strict socio-cultural and socio-economic traditional conventions ( Sahin et al ., 2018 ; Branicki et al ., 2017 ; Alexander & Honig, 2016) or more threatening social factors like conflicts and other kinds of disturbances ( Korber & McNaughton, 2017 ). In sum, resilience at the personal level is hypothesized to have direct consequences (positive or negative) on resilience at the organization level—hence resulting in positive outcomes in challenging environments ( Williams et al ., 2013 ; Shadbolt, 2016 ). In short, this section of the study presents discussions on the two concepts (entrepreneurship resilience) in the light of intrinsic features or attributes of persons or enterprises. The above assertion is informed by a deductive opinion of agency: a number of previous circumstances (intellectual attributes, organizational features, or group-level variables) can have higher influence when it comes to the promotion of the resilience of a firm. This growth in the firm’s resilience can consequently contribute towards enhancing entrepreneurs (especially organizations) to conquer subsequent disturbances. The data for this study however, did not reveal the said disturbances or crisis. Thus, the findings do not give insights as to how micro and macro entrepreneurial actors employ their inherent resilience to overcome adversities when they occur. The literature also hardly interrogates the assertion that entrepreneurial resilience at the personal level automatically improves resilience at the organizational level. Alternatively, entrepreneurial resilience is perceived to be an asset that organizations can generally rely on in the advent of adversity.

Exploration stream (2): Resilience generating entrepreneurial intentions

Another category of the papers (n=9) focus on issues related to the intents of entrepreneurs ( Lin et al. , 2017 ) and argue that innate entrepreneurial resilience accounts for the reasons some individuals embark on business ventures while many do not. Thus, both facilitative and militating variables have direct bearings on resilience in entrepreneurship. Also, there are differences between “push” and “pull” entrepreneurs, high-growth and low-growth. Now, resilience is usually seen as self-efficiency or self-confidence. Bullough and Renko (2013) , for instance, argued that aiding activities that aim at developing prospective entrepreneurial leaders helps promote behaviors that are required for an economy to thrive. As such, when entrepreneurship curriculum is integrated into the educational system, it would develop self-efficiency and resilience in prospective entrepreneurs. Thus, entrepreneurial aspirants that have the confidence in their capabilities of being able to survive unfavorable business settings would most likely venture into business. Similarly, Corner et al. (2017) propose in their investigative research that a greater percentage of entrepreneurs displayed a resilient approach in their psychology after unsuccessful business ventures. There is usually grief, coping and learning. There is stability in functions and learning from failure. Fisher et al . (2016) concluded that the level of individual resilience in entrepreneurial success depends on how business performance is operationalized. Regrettably, publications in the exploration stream (n=2) fail to conceptually examine the difference between resilience and related features and do not often respond to the question ‘is it every entrepreneurial project that is worthy of pursuance?’. Thus, resilience as conceptualized in this exploration stream may stimulate highly ambitious entrepreneurs to embark on business pursuits that are condemned to be unsuccessful.

Exploration stream (3): Entrepreneurial behavior boosting organizational resilience

Although the 11 papers included in this stream see the concept of entrepreneurship as a state of the mind, the concept is further re-enforced by entrepreneurs exhibiting flexibility and innovativeness. This, according to Bullough and Renko (2013) , equips entrepreneurs to build activities that result in producing prospective entrepreneurial leaders, who aim at developing behaviors that are required for the progress of an economy. It again projects entrepreneurship as having a personality dimension and is influenced by a series of variables such as the individual’s efficiency, education, gender, age, and social context ( Sahin et al ., 2018 ). Also, implied in the extant literature is the concept organization capacity, with entrepreneurs exhibiting resilient mindset due to the uncertain environments, adversity and the informal organizational setting ( Branicki et al ., 2017 ). Similarly, it further purports that psychological capital such as hope; resilience and self-efficacy, have a positive effect on startup intentions ( Jin, 2017 ).

In this stream, many of the authors build constructs to suggest that entrepreneurship is a function of thought and action though many do not clearly define what entrepreneurial behavior is made of. The literature suggests entrepreneurs exhibit cognitive behavior traits. A number of the publications attempt to show the manifestations of the behaviors of entrepreneurs in the midst of serious upheavals ( Corner et al. , 2017 ).

Exploration stream (4): Entrepreneurship and culture

The fourth stream of literature centers on culture. According to Curry et al. (2016) , the culture of entrepreneurship refers to an architecture of principles, ideologies and behaviors that are related in a specific dispensation or among a particular group of people, that have the power to facilitate the entrepreneurial leaning of that group (both at the personal and organizational levels). Viewing it from this angle, researchers have identified some culture related attributes as relevant components for the promotion and development of entrepreneurship in every social dispensation. Pettit et al. (2010) , classified these traits based on concepts such as family background, religion, history, ideology and enterprise culture. In addition, as opined by Anlesinya et al. (2019) , the balance that exists between managerial services and environmental variables constitute a core determinant of organizational successful progress. This study asserts therefore, that enhanced entrepreneurship progress can be achieved through appropriate integration of cultures and other geo-social variables ( Alexander & Honig, 2016 ). Their argument draws a sharp contrast between some revealed patterns in certain African states that seem to project the idea that indiscriminate employment of Western frameworks of entrepreneurship development happens to be the ultimate remedy for combating the crisis of entrepreneurship growth in the continent. It therefore indicates the need for a revived collective effort that targets acquiring various social, economic, culture-related principles and guidelines that can help in bringing out unexploited entrepreneurship talents among Africans as a whole.

In fact, there are facts that seek to imply that some cultural dispensations (including some African states) possess some generational practices embedded in their cultures that have positive economic relevance to progress of their entrepreneurship projects ( Kreiser et al. , 2010 ; Pettit et al. , 2010 ; Hedner et al. , 2011 ). Regrettably, such relevant aspects of cultures appeared to have been left behind in pursuit of so called “modernity”. On this basis, it has become necessary to study other cultures with the hope of discovering cultural principles that might help in promoting the growth-related crisis of such societies as far as entrepreneurship is concerned. As Ude and Bete (2013) stated: “in an environment of uncertainty and risk, with imperfect information and positive transaction costs, Nnewi traders had a number of institutional advantages. In many ways, Nnewi Township has been described as an authentic ‘manufacturing miracle’ but because manufacturing miracles tend to be measured by national level production, Nnewi and other areas like it is probably doomed to pass unnoticed by those who are trying to understand the reasons why some nations grow, others stagnate, and yet others decline”.

Exploration stream (5): Resilience in the framework of entrepreneurial failure

The fifth stream of literature originates outside pure organizational science disciplines such as economics and focusses on others such as psychology, ecology and engineering. Apart from entrepreneurs contributing to job creation and economic growth, they are relevant to regional resilience and the enhancement and creation of a relatively stable and multifaceted commercial prospectus ( Korber & McNaughton 2017 ; Williams et al. , 2013 ), opportunities and institutional contexts ( Yufeng et al ., 2017 ), and African economies introducing appropriate regulative changes needed to facilitate entrepreneurial development, improving of cost of starting business, procedural delays and red tape ( Kshetri, 2011 ; Alexandre et al ., 2019 ). Researchers also draw on psychological, ecological and engineering literature in various unfavorable contexts that call for entrepreneurs’ employment of efficient resilient skills. Organizations must learn to tackle the particular crisis confronted with the lessons learnt during the previous encounter. That comprises a combination of regular elicitations in an attempt to return to stability. The responses must however also be flexible to enhance a skillful configuration that portrays increase in biodiversity in the resilience of ecological systems ( Manifield & Newey, 2017 ).

Some authors (n=5) discuss resilience as the organizational reliability, organizational response to potential environmental upheavals, employee capabilities in adopting entrepreneurial frameworks and designing guidelines towards mitigating the weaknesses associated with supply chain and other disruptions ( Linnenluecke, 2017 ). Again, entrepreneurial establishments are branded by a talented and creative entrepreneur, favorable organizational systems, entrepreneurial culture as well as impressive skills acquisition support system. Moreover, a few of the papers here discuss the contributions of individual entrepreneurs in developing regional and community-based resilience ( Korber & McNaughton, 2017 ). Likewise, Ingram Claire et al . (2015) submitted that collective identity shapes resilient responses and advocated that for shocks to be contained, a regulation and oversight regime must be put in place.

It could then be established that exploration streams from the first five streams construct resilience as a resource. It is a trait, possessed by individuals, cultural groups/communities, organizations, cities or regions that tend to help various vulnerabilities either in various fields related to organizational science, psychology, ecology and engineering in the event of disasters/disruptions. The last exploration stream to be discussed focuses on actions after disasters/disruptions. Thus, the construct here is more of post disaster/disruption.

Exploration stream (6): Resilience as a process of recovery and transformation

Finally, the idea of this stream of literature conjures a picture of adaptive resilience ( Branicki et al ., 2017 ) with a touch on adaptive capacity. It mainly has to do with the ability to change and learn after disruption. As reported by Corner et al. (2017) in their investigative research, a greater percentage of entrepreneurs displayed a resilient approach in their psychological outburst after unsuccessful business ventures. There is usually grief, coping and learning, stability of functions and learning from failure. Along the same lines, Javadian et al . (2018) established a positive and significant relationship between emotional carrying capacity and entrepreneurial self-efficacy, all emphasizing the important role of adaptive capacity.

Ayala and Manzano (2014) conducted a study on the possible reason(s) that account for the different reactions that entrepreneurs exhibit when confronted with an industrial crisis. It was discovered that the reactions of victims in such technical situations is mostly defined by their personal, social, economic or cultural identities.

This review analyzed 32 studies that focused on the interface between resilience and entrepreneurship. The study discovered six clear exploration streams that in different perspectives define the kind of conceptual relationship that exist between the constructs identified. The intellectual domain from which the discussions emerge often accounts for such differences. Firstly, there is resilience in psychology records and resilience in the context of commercial and administrative discourse studies mainly during the 1980s and 1990s with concentration on the adoption and familiarization of business frameworks and resilient supply chain designs. Also, there are those focused on the city, region and economy in general. For instance, Williams et al . (2013) studied economic resilience and entrepreneurship in the Thessaloniki city region. The authors submitted that entrepreneurship needs to be understood to be critical to resilience of city regions and serve as a vehicle to promote a more balanced and diverse economic means. Also, Kshetri (2011) in examining institutional and economic foundations of entrepreneurship foundations of entrepreneurship in Africa concluded that, the introduction of appropriate regulative changes can bring about entrepreneurial development in Africa without the usual red tapeism. These authors underscore why resilience generate entrepreneurial intentions ( Lin et al. , 2017 ; Bullough & Renko, 2013 ; Corner et al. , 2017 ).

Furthermore, some individual resilience traits, skills self-esteemed, optimism and persistence influence entrepreneurship success ( Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ; Bullough & Renko, 2013 ; Ayala & Manzano, 2014 ).

Nevertheless, most of the publications reviewed seemed to construct entrepreneurship both at the individual and organizational level to nebulously define adversity or disruptions. Wall and Bellamy (2019) in their study expanding the debate and empirical basis of small firm owner-managers’ for resilience found the following: owner-manager adaptability can appear in extremes cases including a sense of helplessness or optimism. Secondly, owner-manager confidence levels often echo their own mindset toward adaptability (helplessness to positive ambition). Finally, owner-managers can use discursive tactics with strong/weak impacts from a range of affective and technical resources for resilience.

Earlier, Manifield and Newey (2017) examined competing assumptions about the nature of resilience and select those most appropriate for an entrepreneurial context. They found out that, resilience is a concept for different threats and disciplines. Thus, entrepreneurship, is a capability portfolio that relies on routine-based capability response when threats are familiar, simple, not severe and frequent following minimal disorganization. The contrast is that heuristic-based capabilities are relied on when threats are unfamiliar, complex, severe and infrequent following serious disorganization.

Anlesinya et al. (2019) investigated the role of cultural factors on the emergence and success of entrepreneurs. The authors came to the conclusion that culture influenced the Nwewi people's entrepreneurial and managerial talents in a major and positive way. Prudence, independence, inventiveness, trust, intimacy and openness in the workplace, submissive apprenticeship, and perseverance were all identified as cultural characteristics. Trust and social capital promote resilience, according to Larson et al. (2016) , and this manifests in common knowledge and a custom of not relying on written customs that emphasize reciprocity. In addition, the Rodrigue et al. (2017) looked examined the effects of family business and exposure to family company concepts on entrepreneurial career identity. The finding was that practicing entrepreneurs who were exposed to family business and were aware of business concepts from extended family before starting their businesses were more likely to succeed, reiterating the importance of family role models.

In contrast, some research defined the concept of entrepreneurship to mean a fusion of psychological asset such as emotional carrying capacity and entrepreneurial self-efficacy that classify who is or not an entrepreneur. Again, Branicki et al ., (2017) investigated how entrepreneurial behaviors support small and medium size enterprise (SMEs) to be resilient. They submitted that, SMEs uncertain environments, adversity and the informal organisational settings that these SMEs operate, often makes them highly resilient and possess capabilities that enable SME’s to be resilient.

Yet, most publications constructed it simply by arguing that innovation and creativity constitute the hallmark or a constant talent of every entrepreneur. For instance, Jin (2017) explored the effects of the positive psychological capital of young start-up entrepreneurs on start-up intentions and entrepreneurial performances. The author concluded that, sub-factors of positive psychological capital such as hope, resilience and self-efficacy have positive effects on start us intention. As a follow up to these results, this study suggests that future researchers should consider fusing all three constructs (resilience as a psychological trait, business management model and city or regional level) together in conducting research on resilience. Beginning with the exploration streams discussed, a background can be set by researchers for an all-inclusive or interdisciplinary research. Secondly, it is clear that a good regulatory framework, communal schemas and culture can also impact on entrepreneurial resilience. Research needs to pay more attention to the reactions that entrepreneurs exhibit in addressing or combating entrepreneurial crisis as well as how they are, as individuals, able to contribute towards improving community-level and regional-level resilience. Thirdly, this study advocates for the proposition of a working definition of entrepreneurial resilience in order to establish a progressive direction for further studies. This way, entrepreneurial resilience should not only be responsive, readiness, determination, or survival-oriented. Rather, it should be constructed as an ever-present multiple rank concept that refers to one’s ability to dynamically cope under adverse conditions. Finally, this systematic review has at least pointed out a central peculiarity of internal property of a system and the coping capacity that relates to protective resilience and adaptive resilience to external threats.

Practical implications

This work reiterates the need for entrepreneurs to be aware that resilience is pivotal for the whole gamut of entrepreneurial endeavors.

Entrepreneurs consider the good times without regard to both internal and external threats in the environment. It is also clear that, entrepreneurs with resilient capabilities serve as a bulwark against bad times. The study proposes, contrary to the common custom that in an attempt to attain efficacy, entrepreneurs may consider using specific resources to pawn incipient dangers. Those who are able to do that show their capacity portfolio to respond to routine-based and heuristic-related resilient abilities for individual complicated crisis as well as disorganizations challenges. When entrepreneurs build their capacities to identify and manage these threats, whether routine or heuristic in nature, then they are poised to gain more from refining the various problem-solving talents and can well tackle situations that pose different threats.

This review stresses the need for policy makers in African economies to make the required regulations that can facilitate the progress of entrepreneurship in the sub region. It has been said that many potential entrepreneurs in some sub-Saharan Africa struggle with very high costs associated with starting a business. Again, procedural delays and red tape are other serious problems hindering entrepreneurial efforts in these economies. A study revealed, for example, that less developed nations like African countries can lose about 0.4% potential GDP growth for the delay in allowing people start businesses—this calculation was done by considering only a 10-day delay - ( Economist, 2012 ). Some sub-Saharan Africa economies have achieved a significant leap on this front. The World Bank’s ease of doing business survey ( World Bank, 2009 ) showed that Rwanda has been the fastest reformer with rankings improving from 143 in 2009 to 67 in 2010. This is a good example for policy makers in Africa to replicate.

Strengths and limitations

This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA). One of the outstanding strengths of this study is the wide search which exposed the researcher to many different scholarly articles that are important to the aims and objectives of the study. However, it is relevant to state that the wider nature of the search has its own limitations, which include the fact that the search could not cater for grey literature and other relevant scholarly works on the subject that were not written in English. This study comprises of scholarly research conducted on populations, even though there was a focus on Western countries and to a lesser extent Asia and one study from sub-Saharan Africa. This may limit generalizability to other settings especially sub-Saharan Africa as there may be cultural or discipline differences in how entrepreneurial resilience is constructed. It therefore indicates the need for a revived collective effort that targets acquiring various social, economic, culture-related principles and guidelines that can help in bringing out the unexploited entrepreneurship talents among Africans as a whole ( Alexander & Honig, 2016 ). The procedure of synthesis was contingent on my interpretations and there are chances that the initial experiences or findings were misinterpreted, but the adoption of PRISMA has improved robustness as well as transparency. Regardless of the above limitations, this review sheds light on entrepreneurial behaviors that support business resilience and help refine the concept of entrepreneurial resilience as presented in extant literature.

Gaps in evidence

The studies reviewed showed limited coverage of concepts associated with psychological capital as well as resilience research being fragmented across several research tributaries.

Future research needs

Future research should take a further all-inclusive method to study entrepreneurship and resilience from a multi-dimensional and longitudinal approach.

Data availability

Underlying data.

All data underlying the results are available as part of the article and no additional source data are required.

Reporting guidelines

figshare: Resilience and Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Review: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.18093344 ( Conduah, 2022 )

- PRISMA_2020_checklist.docx

- PRISMA_2020_flow_diagram_updated_SRs_v1

Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0).

Review registry

This systematic review was not registered.

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• Reader Comment 25 Apr 2022 Habibullah Habibullah , National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta, Indonesia 25 Apr 2022 Reader Comment Very interesting study with resilience and entrepreneurship with a systematic literature review. Very open in terms of presenting the literature used. Competing Interests: There is no conflict of interest between me and the results of this research, the author or the institution Very interesting study with resilience and entrepreneurship with a systematic literature review. Very open in terms of presenting the literature used. Very interesting study with resilience and entrepreneurship with a systematic literature review. Very open in terms of presenting the literature used. Competing Interests: There is no conflict of interest between me and the results of this research, the author or the institution Close Report a concern
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