Andrology
45.0
Audiology
8.0
Cancer Genomics
46.0
Cardiac Science
15.5
Clinical Biochemistry
29.8
Clinical Bioinformatics (Genomics)
15.0
Clinical Bioinformatics (Health Informatics)
15.0
Clinical Bioinformatics (Physical Sciences)
6.5
Clinical Engineering
16.7
Clinical Immunology
79.0
Clinical Pharmaceutical Science
21.2
Critical Care Science
0.0
Gastrointestinal Physiology
13.3
Genomic Counselling
29.0
Genomics
40.0
Haematology and Transfusion Science
33.1
Histocompatibility and Immunogenetics
17.8
Histopathology
0.0
Medical Physics
7.6
Microbiology
105.7
Neurophysiology
29.6
Reproductive Science – Andrology
37.3
Reproductive Science - Embryology
37.3
Respiratory and Sleep Sciences
12.0
Urodynamic Science
0.0
Reconstructive Science
6.1
Table 1: Competition ratios for STP specialisms.
Work-based learning, during the first year of the programme, features an induction, mandatory training, core modules and several rotational placements.5 At university, introductory modules that cover broad topics from the trainee’s chosen theme – life sciences, physiological sciences, physical sciences and clinical engineering or bioinformatics – are completed.
The first set of MSc examinations are taken at the end of the first year. There is greater emphasis on the trainee’s chosen specialism in the second year. The research project is started and there is another set of degree examinations. In the middle of second year, trainees are required to pass the midterm review of progression.
Finally, during the third year, the final MSc examinations are attempted and there is a work-based elective placement. The programme is concluded by the Objective Structured Final Assessment (OSFA).5 Successful completion of the OSFA, eportfolio and master’s degree result in trainees being awarded a Certificate of Completion for the Scientist Training Programme (CCSTP).6 Trainees then apply to the Academy for Healthcare Science (AHCS) for a Certificate of Equivalence or a Certificate of Attainment. Subsequently, they are eligible to apply to the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) for registration as a Clinical Scientist.6
A further programme, termed the Higher Specialist Scientist Training (HSST), has a duration of five years and allows some clinical scientists to progress to consultant level. It results in the attainment of a doctorate degree.
Earnings for NHS jobs are classified by pay scales. Trainee clinical scientists are appointed at band 6, at which the starting salary is £31,365.7 The salary increases in accordance with number of years of experience.
Qualified clinical scientists progress to band 7, at which the starting salary is £38,890.7 This also increases over time to a maximum of £44,503 for eight or more years of service. As further experience and qualifications are obtained, it is possible to apply for positions up to band 9 on the pay scale.
For more information on doctor's salaries within the NHS, please feel free to review The Complete Guide to NHS Pay .
Related Job Sources With BMJ Careers
Other Complete Guides By BMJ Careers
NHS Scientist Training Programme - 2020 recruitment [Internet]. Health Careers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/news/nhs-scientist-training-programme-2020-recruitment
Audiology [Internet]. Health Careers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/physiological-sciences/audiology
Entry requirements [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/applicants/entry-requirements/
Competition ratios for the Scientist Training Programme (STP) Direct Entry [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/applicants/about-the-scientist-training-programme/
Setting the scene [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/trainees/setting-the-scene/
Completion of the Scientist Training Programme [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/trainees/completion-of-the-programme/
NHS Terms and Conditions (AfC) pay scales - Annual [Internet]. NHS Employers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.nhsemployers.org/pay-pensions-and-reward/agenda-for-change/pay-scales/annual
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Starting a career in medical research
If you have the intellectual and emotional resilience, also if you wish to contribute to the body of knowledge in medical sciences then you are a right candidate for a career in Medical Research. Devising and conducting experiments, investigating the epidemiological basis of a disease, working in collaboration with a team, ability to question intricate complexities of genome and proteome and effective written and oral communication skills are the chief qualities of an inborn medical researcher. If the following description sounds like you, then you are probably well suited for a career as a medical researcher.
Qualifications to become a medial researcher
The roadmap to medical researcher is complex because it’s a profession that demands distinctive skills and expertise along with mandatory formal education. The simplest formal degree requirement is minimum Masters or a Ph.D. For an outstanding career as a medical researcher, a Ph.D. will help you to go the distance in an academic career. There is right now an extraordinarily extensive overabundance of post-doctoral partnerships battling for an exceptional set number of lasting scholarly positions. Having said that, accomplishing a PhD in a science subject will stand you in great stead for various research positions. You can pursue a career in medical research by obtaining a formal education in either biological sciences or medicine however; medicine can broaden your options. Furthermore, after earning a formal education in either biology or medicine, the next milestone towards the development of a career in medical research is participating in a research-based internship. In most graduate schools, participating in a research internship and undertaking a research project is the part of the exclusively designed curriculum. This opportunity will allow you to get a chance to be mentored by a physician or research scientist where you can work in collaboration with the team on the ongoing research project.
In order to escalate to the position of the medical researcher, it is integral to complete an advanced degree program in either science or medicine. According to the US Bureau Labor Statistics (BLS), postgraduates and graduates with dual undergraduate degrees become successful candidates for the job positions.
After completing your advanced education, as a medical researcher you can start your aspiring and a challenging career with entry-level positions of medical research associate. As an associate, you are required to assist a scientist in devising, planning and conducting research trials. You can add something extraordinary to your resume by earning credentials offered to research professionals by regulatory bodies. Credential based certifications are not only going to prepare you for some verifiable skills needed in the career but will also aid you in advancing your career path to medical research.
The job role
As a medical researcher, it is your utmost responsibility to conduct research to improve the health status and longevity of the population. The career revolves around clinical investigations to understand human diseases and rigorous lab work. As a medical researcher, formal education will not suffice. As a developing medical researcher, you need to have effective communication, critical thinking, decision-making, data collecting, data analysing and observational skills. These skill sets will enable you to create a competitive edge in the research industry.
Your interest in scientific exploration and a desire to provide a breakthrough in medical knowledge will help you to explore and solve some unknown mysteries associated with complex diseases.
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Medical Laboratory Science Program
What does a medical laboratory scientist do.
A medical laboratory scientist (MLS), also known as a medical technologist or clinical laboratory scientist, works to analyze a variety of biological specimens. They are responsible for performing scientific testing on samples and reporting results to physicians.
Medical laboratory scientists perform complex tests on patient samples using sophisticated equipment like microscopes. The data they find plays an important role in identifying and treating cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and other medical conditions. It is estimated 60 to 70 percent of all decisions regarding a patient's diagnosis, treatment, hospital admission, and discharge are based on the results of the tests medical laboratory scientists perform.
Medical laboratory scientists collaborate very closely with physicians and medical laboratory technicians in diagnosing and monitoring disease processes, as well as monitoring the effectiveness of therapy. Areas of medical laboratory training include microbiology, chemistry, hematology, immunology, transfusion medicine, toxicology, and molecular diagnostics.
Medical laboratory scientists have a wide variety of responsibilities and duties, including:
While similar, there are a few key differences between a medical lab scientist and a medical lab technician. They both work in the lab and perform tests on biological samples, however, a medical lab scientist typically has more education and is able to perform more involved lab work. A medical lab technician performs more of the routine lab work and is often supervised by a medical lab scientist.
A medical laboratory assistant is a subgroup of medical laboratory technician. They are responsible for preparing biological specimens, recording information, and perform more of the lab maintenance tasks such as cleaning equipment and stocking supplies. A medical laboratory scientist will work with a medical laboratory assistant by analyzing their prepared specimens and relaying information for them to record.
Medical lab scientists work in hospitals, clinics, forensic or public health laboratories, as well as pharmaceutical industries, biotechnology companies, veterinary clinics, or research institutions. Depending on the setting, their work hours may vary; but typically labs are run 24 hours a day, seven days a week. This allows for flexibility in scheduling.
Medical laboratory scientists spend the majority of their time on their feet, analyzing test results in the lab.
Successful medical lab scientists are effective communicators with a sound intellect and interest in science and technology. Excellent eye-hand coordination, dexterity, and visual acuity are important to skillfully perform and analyze tests.
Individuals who love science and research, but prefer to have little-to-no interaction with patients, would be a good fit for the medical laboratory scientist career.
After obtaining a high school diploma (or the equivalent), most will go on to obtain some level of higher education and training in order to become a medical laboratory scientist.
Common higher education requirements for medical laboratory scientist jobs include:
Most employers require medical laboratory scientists to obtain certification through an accrediting body, such as the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP) Board of Certification (BOC) . After passing the credentialing exam, medical laboratory scientists (MLS) can practice under the credentials of MLS(ASCP)CM.
Licensure by state may also be required.
Job growth and security are high for medical laboratory technicians and scientists. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , there is currently a shortage of medical lab technicians and scientists in many parts of the country which guarantees ample employment opportunities and sometimes higher salaries for graduates. With the volume of laboratory tests continuing to increase due to both population growth and the development of new types of tests, job opportunities are expected to increase faster than average with over 26,000 new positions expected to be available by 2030.
With additional training and experience, a medical lab scientist can become a department lead or lab manager. Others may seek specializations to advance their careers. Typically, a medical lab technician will progress to a medical lab scientist with more training.
Mayo Clinic offers several programs and rotations to further your education and prepare you for a career as a medical laboratory scientist, medical laboratory assistant, or medical laboratory technician.
Careers in healthcare: Let us help you find your fit
So you want to be a medical scientist. An MD isn’t enough to make your parents proud, so why not toss in a PhD as well? With your MD/PhD, you’ll be making groundbreaking medical discoveries each day you go to work. Well, not quite. This is the reality of being a medical scientist.
Welcome to our next installment in So You Want to Be. In this series, we highlight a specific medical career path to help you decide if it’s a good fit for you. You can find the other specialties on our So You Want To Be blog category or YouTube playlist .
A medical scientist or physician scientist isn’t a distinct specialty of medicine but rather a career path you choose to take.
Medical scientists might hold a PhD, an MD, or both. These are notable distinctions because a PhD will not have gone to medical school, whereas earning an MD or MD/PhD requires four years of medical school. That’s why some medical scientists with an MD prefer to be referred to as physician scientists.
For the purposes of this guide, we’ll be focusing on the MD path, but much of the pros and cons and day-to-day will also apply to anyone interested in becoming a PhD medical scientist without an MD.
A medical scientist is dedicated to conducting research that enhances our understanding of human health and diseases. They focus on exploring the causes and progressions of various health conditions, aiming to develop effective treatments and preventive measures.
Depending on their interest and field of study, medical scientists often devote approximately 4 to 5 days of their work week to performing research in laboratories. An integral part of this includes writing research grants, conducting lab meetings, and performing meticulous analysis of experimental data, and they often employ statistical methods to decipher complex health-related phenomena.
Medical scientists can also be actively involved in conducting clinical trials. These trials are critical for testing the safety and efficacy of new treatments, drugs, or medical devices on human subjects. Collaboration is a cornerstone of their work, as they frequently team up with doctors, other scientists, and statisticians. This multidisciplinary approach is essential due to the multifaceted nature of medical research.
After testing a hypothesis, medical scientists publish their findings in scientific journals and share their discoveries with both the medical community and, at times, the broader public. This dissemination of knowledge can significantly influence healthcare practices and policy-making.
Medical scientists can have a profound impact on healthcare, which can be incredibly rewarding. Their contributions are vital for the development of new medical treatments and diagnostics, ultimately leading to enhanced patient care and health outcomes.
Medical scientists can practice in a wide variety of different settings.
Academic settings are the most common workplace.
Universities and medical schools offer an environment conducive to both research and teaching, given that there are interested students, faculty, and many technicians and other research personnel. In these settings, physician scientists often conduct research, teach medical students and residents, and sometimes practice clinically.
Academic institutions provide support to tackle research projects, including obtaining funding and the facilities for shared lab equipment. Most academic settings also have the benefit of being associated with large hospitals and medical centers.
Independent research institutes, which often focus on specific diseases or types of research, are another common workplace. These institutes may have affiliations with academic centers, but they function primarily as dedicated research facilities. Physician scientists in this setting can focus intensively on research, often with greater resources and specialized equipment.
Some physician scientists work in the industry, particularly with companies that focus on developing new medications or medical technologies. Their clinical expertise is required to develop new treatments, understand patient needs, and conduct clinical trials.
Government agencies like the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, and the Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, employ physician scientists in various capacities. They can work on public health research, policy development, and administration of research programs. Their medical expertise helps to shape health policies and research agendas at the national level.
Some physician scientists work with nonprofits and foundations that focus on health research and policy. These roles can involve research, advocacy, and the development of programs to improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
Although less common, some physician scientists may be involved in private practice, either in clinical work, consultancy, or in combination with research activities. These roles often require balancing clinical duties with research interests.
Let’s clear up some of the misconceptions about working as a medical scientist.
A common misconception is that medical research frequently leads to immediate, groundbreaking discoveries. In reality, the process is often slow and meticulous.
Significant breakthroughs are relatively rare and are usually the result of many years of sustained research. The journey involves numerous incremental advancements as opposed to dramatic new findings.
The career path for medical scientists isn’t always straightforward and can be quite varied. Individuals in this field may find themselves transitioning between different sectors, such as academia, industry, and government roles. There isn’t a one-size-fits-all career trajectory in medical science, and success often requires flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances and opportunities.
Another misconception is that medical scientists exclusively work in labs. In reality, their work is multifaceted, encompassing not only laboratory research but also data analysis, writing research papers and grant applications, and presenting findings at conferences. This variety in tasks ensures that the role is diverse and not confined to a single setting.
Lastly, many people believe there are limited job opportunities for medical scientists. The field is broad, offering diverse career opportunities in academia, the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, government agencies, and healthcare organizations. The job opportunities are so varied because the skill set of a medical scientist, and their ability to communicate with other scientific parties, is valued across multiple sectors.
Becoming a physician scientist with an MD/PhD involves a rigorous and lengthy educational process that’s designed to train individuals who are interested in both practicing medicine and conducting biomedical research.
The journey is largely split into two branches: pursuing each degree independently or enrolling in an MD/PhD program or integrated Medical Scientist Training Program, MSTP.
With a sequential approach, you first must complete a Doctor of Medicine (MD) program and then enroll in a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program, or vice versa. This path is less common due to the extended time commitment and the requirement of two different and unique applications—one for MD and another for the PhD program. MD graduates may choose to pursue their PhD during or after residency.
An MD program typically takes 4 years and is focused on clinical training, preparing students for a career in medicine. This is the same path anyone who wants to become an MD will begin with, no matter the specialty.
A PhD program with a research focus usually takes 4-6 years and requires a dissertation based on original research.
Independently pursuing an MD and PhD usually takes longer than completing a joint program or MSTP. The time to complete both programs can range from 8-12 years, depending on a student’s pace and the nature of their PhD research.
This route offers flexibility in timing and choice of programs but can be more challenging due to the lack of a structured pathway. Many courses will likely be repeated, and unlike the opportunities available to those enrolled in an MSTP, there’s no tuition reimbursement.
Medical Scientist Training Programs are dual-degree programs designed to integrate medical and graduate education.
Training occurs simultaneously in medicine and research, as pursuing degrees independently can sometimes result in a disconnect between the two fields. There are around 50 MSTPs located across the US.
The MSTP distinction means the NIH provides governmental funds to support the program, including tuition coverage and a graduate stipend every year, making MSTPs more financially appealing. There are also MD/PhD programs that are not MSTP, but their funding depends on the internal program and institution itself, not the government. Because of this, non-MSTP programs tend to be smaller in size.
There are appropriate standards across MSTP institutions, such as annual retreats, a formalized curriculum, and seminars to aid in transitions. The structured curriculum smoothly transitions students between medical training and research~~, with research rotations completed during the summers in between medical school semesters~~.
An MSTP is typically 7 to 8 years in length and involves two phases: Pre-clinical and clinical, and these phases are interspersed with PhD research.
Because of the limited spots available, guaranteed stipends, and the fact the programs are often located at more prestigious schools, admission to MSTPs is highly competitive.
Each year, there are approximately 700 MD/PhD matriculants across the nation. Students must not only have satisfied requirements for medical school entry, which includes extracurriculars as well as a high MCAT and GPA, but also have actively participated in several research projects or experiences. Lately, competitive applicants commonly have at least one publication. Unfortunately, because of NIH governmental funding, MSTPs do not accept international or non-US trainees.
What about subspecialization?
Most MD/PhD graduates choose to pursue residency and fellowship training, which will take another 3-7 years minimum. Their dual degree, research prowess, and extensive training it takes to complete an MD/PhD makes them particularly attractive to residency programs.
While MD/PhD graduates can enter any medical specialty, some fields are more common due to the presence of integrated research pathways, funding availability, and research prevalence in the specialty.
Internal medicine, pediatrics, pathology, neurology, psychiatry, radiology, and radiation oncology are common residency paths. Given how long the MD/PhD training already is, students interested in longer residencies and fellowships must acknowledge the delayed income, level of work ethic, and perseverance required to complete this 1- to 2-decade journey.
There’s a lot to love about working as a medical scientist.
People who love working as a medical scientist cite the dynamic and intellectually stimulating nature of their work as a major draw. The field offers a unique blend of clinical practice and research, allowing individuals to directly impact patient care while also contributing to the broader understanding of medical science.
The variety in day-to-day activities is a significant appeal. One day might involve seeing patients and addressing their immediate health concerns, while the next could be dedicated to laboratory research or analyzing data to uncover new insights into disease mechanisms.
Medical scientists also encounter diverse patient populations, providing a rich and rewarding clinical experience. The “bread and butter” of work ranges from routine patient examinations to conducting groundbreaking research, which means no two days are alike.
Additionally, the lifestyle of a medical scientist is flexible, with the ability to balance clinical duties with research pursuits. This balance makes for a career that is not only professionally fulfilling but also accommodating of personal interests and commitments. The sense of contribution to both immediate patient health and the advancement of medical knowledge is a powerful motivator and source of satisfaction and fulfillment for those in this field.
While the career of a medical scientist has a lot to offer, it’s a long journey to get there, which isn’t for everyone.
The most notable downside to this career path is the extra training involved, which delays your ability to earn an attending salary even further. While many MD/PhD programs offer stipends and tuition waivers, the extended years in training equates to delayed entry into the full-time workforce.
The field requires extensive education and training, and the early years, particularly in academic or research settings, may not be as financially rewarding as other professions requiring similar levels of education. However, it can be a financially stable and rewarding career over the long term.
Though rewarding when breakthroughs are made, these don’t happen every day—far from it. Research can seem exciting and even sexy from the outside, but it’s often a slow and frustrating process; some experiments may require years to see results, whereas others may never yield the expected results. This can be disheartening, especially for those who are results-oriented.
That’s why it’s so important for premeds to get exposure to various types of research before they dedicate their education and future careers to it. Some types of research may be more appealing than others, and you could write it off entirely after one bad experience before figuring out what you like.
Additionally, the dual demands of clinical practice and research can lead to a busy lifestyle. Balancing patient care with the rigors of scientific investigation means long hours, which often impact work-life balance and job satisfaction.
Lastly, securing funding for research is a constant challenge. The competitive nature of grant applications and the reliance on external funding sources can create uncertainty and affect the scope and direction of research. And different areas of research see different spikes and drops in popularity, given public perception and government funding priorities. What’s most important or most interesting to you isn’t always what’s most funded.
For those in academic settings, there’s often pressure to publish regularly, contribute to teaching, and maintain a reputation in the scientific community, which can be demanding alongside clinical responsibilities. These activities are not reimbursed yet are frequently seen as necessary.
So, should you become a medical scientist?
Medical scientists get to help shape healthcare delivery and treatment. Those who are naturally curious, enjoy solving complex problems, and are constantly seeking new knowledge tend to do well in this field. Enjoying teamwork and collaboration is also important, as medical scientists often work with other researchers, clinicians, and healthcare professionals. If you have a genuine interest in understanding disease mechanisms and a drive to improve patient care, this may be an ideal path for you.
However, the path to becoming a medical scientist is long and can be filled with challenges, including research setbacks and the pressures of medical training. The field of research can also be unpredictable and full of unknowns. Comfort with ambiguity and a flexible mindset are crucial.
Patience and resilience are also incredibly vital and relevant traits to possess. It’s easy to become discouraged while conducting research. Medical scientists must be able to push through the failed experiments, rejections from grant approvals, long periods of monotony, as well as periods of great challenge. Earning an MD already requires significant levels of dedication and perseverance. An MD/PhD takes this to a whole new level, not only because the training is longer, but also because the day-to-day requires more patience than regular MD work. Research is no cakewalk.
If you’re considering becoming a medical scientist, seek out mentors and experiences in both research and clinical settings to better understand the nature of the work and whether or not it aligns with your interests. Engaging in longitudinal research projects can provide valuable insights and help you make an informed decision.
If you’re considering a career as a medical scientist or in medicine as a whole, elevating your research skillset and becoming prolific in research will open doors for you. Our all-new Ultimate Research Course is packed with dozens of videos, resources, and exclusive private community access to elevate your research game to the highest level. Learn from the Med School Insiders experts on our tested and proven tactics to publish dozens and dozens of publications to wow admissions committees and make your application stand out. Whether you’re applying to MD/PhD programs or MD programs, we’re confident you are going to find tremendous value. So much so, it comes with a money back guarantee so that there’s no risk to you.
Med School Insiders has helped thousands of premeds and medical students design and achieve their ideal career paths and we’d love to be a part of your journey to becoming a future physician.
Special thanks to physician scientist Dr. Albert Zhou for helping us create this So You Want to Be entry.
It’s never too early to begin thinking about the specialty you want to pursue. If you’re struggling to choose the best path for you, our So You Want to Be playlist is a great place to start.
So you want to be an oncologist. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and give it to you straight. This is the reality of oncology.
So you want to be a pediatric neurologist. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and give it to you straight. This is the reality of pediatric neurology.
So you want to be an allergist/immunologist—working all day in an outpatient clinic taking care of runny noses. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and
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Duties, responsibilities, schooling, requirements, certifications, job outlook, and salary.
Love the idea of driving breakthroughs in human health? Medical scientists are a critical part of developing emerging medical technology in medical devices, pharmaceuticals, and numerous other fields in the healthcare industry. If you’re the curious type who thrives on the pursuit of knowledge, a career as a medical scientist may be for you.
This career guide will teach you everything you need to know about becoming a medical scientist, including the educational requirements, certifications, day-to-day duties, and how long it generally takes to launch your new career.
Not sure if becoming a medical scientist is right for you? Click here to see our full list of the best entry-level medical jobs .
What is a medical scientist.
Medical scientists are the researchers and fact-finders of the healthcare industry. They develop and conduct experiments to test medical devices and new drugs, study the root causes of diseases, and improve the effectiveness of treatments. They also analyze data to develop research-based insights that hospitals, physicians, or manufacturers depend on to help people get healthier.
What does a medical scientist do.
Before any pharmaceutical drug, treatment, or medical device is used to treat patients, it goes through extensive testing and research to ensure it’s both safe and effective. Medical scientists use their curiosity, analytical skills, and attention to detail to conduct the research that drives advancements in the medical field, both in developing new treatments and developing knowledge to prevent health problems.
Some of the day-to-day responsibilities of medical scientists include:
Great medical scientists are observant and curious, with the critical-thinking and data-analysis skills to turn large amounts of information into actionable insights. Good attention to detail is equally important, especially when working in a laboratory setting. You’ll also need the communication skills to explain your conclusions or write grant proposals to convince people that your research is worthwhile.
Medical scientists usually work a full-time, 40-hour workweek. They usually split their time between laboratory and office settings, though most entry-level medical scientist jobs will involve lots of lab work. Certain areas of their research may involve working with dangerous biological samples or chemicals. However, adequate protective gear and training are always provided, and many protocols are in place to ensure a safe working environment.
How long does it take to become a medical scientist, what degree do you need to be a medical scientist.
While many top medical scientists have a Ph. D. in biology or another life science, increasing numbers of medical scientist jobs are becoming available for those with just a bachelor’s degree, providing ample opportunities to get started in a growing industry. That means that instead of spending an extensive amount of time in school, you can complete a Medical Laboratory Science program in as little as 120 weeks before starting in an exciting new line of work.
Like any long-term goal, working toward a new career as a medical scientist seems much more attainable when you break it down into individual steps.
Here’s a step-by-step guide to the education, experience, and certifications you’ll need to become a medical scientist:
Whether you’re fresh out of high school or looking for a change of pace after working another career, a bachelor’s degree program from an accredited college is the best way to start working towards your future as a medical scientist. To enroll in the Medical Laboratory Science program at Brookline College, you’ll need a high school diploma or GED and a passing grade on a Scholastic Level Exam.
Every bachelor’s degree program will have general education requirements like math, communications, and social and behavioral sciences. All these courses will help you become a more well-rounded professional and person in general—plus keep you from getting too burnt out on all the chemistry and biology you’ll undoubtedly be studying!
Speaking of your degree-specific studies, as you might have guessed, for a career as a scientist, you’ll spend a lot of time studying various types of science—including microbiology, organic and chemical chemistry, and medical-specific applications like hematology and immunology. Ideally, you’ll also receive hands-on training in a laboratory environment, where you’ll learn practical knowledge about the equipment used and learn to perform and analyze the type of lab tests you’ll likely be performing as an entry-level medical scientist. When choosing a medical lab science degree program, consider looking for one that offers students job-placement assistance after finishing their degree, as it can give you a major leg up when it comes time to find an employer.
After earning your medical laboratory science degree, gaining additional certifications is a great way to make yourself more attractive to potential employers. Medical scientists looking to land entry-level jobs should consider certifications from American Medical Technologists (AMT) or the American Society of Clinical Pathology (ASCP) . Both organizations will test you on your knowledge of general laboratory methods and procedures, as well as specifics about areas ranging from hematology and urinalysis to chemistry and microbiology.
AMT certification requires passing a standardized multiple-choice test, usually consisting of 200-230 questions. ASCP certification is a little different—rather than a standardized test, they use computer-adaptive testing in which a correct answer will prompt a more difficult question, and an incorrect answer will prompt a less difficult question. Both are great options, but one may be best for you depending on the area you plan to specialize in.
Many colleges and universities can charge $20,000 and up per semester in tuition alone—and that amount doesn’t include books, lab fees, or other supplies, not to mention living expenses. However, the rise in online education has made earning a bachelor’s degree much more accessible.
How much do medical scientists make.
Medical scientists are one of the highest-paid non-clinical professions in the healthcare industry. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , medical scientists bring home an average annual salary* of about $99,000 . Medical scientists in the top 10% of earners can make up to $160,000 or more per year.
Medical scientists work anywhere in the healthcare industry research is happening—though a few industries tend to employ the majority of professionals in the field. Scientific research and development facilities employ the most medical scientists by far, with colleges, universities, and hospitals being the other major employers. Your salary* as a medical scientist can also vary depending on your chosen industry or workplace setting.
The following is a list of the highest paying industries for this profession:
Pharmaceutical Industry | $55.72 | $115,900 |
Scientific Research & Development | $51.41 | $106,930 |
Medical & Diagnostic Labs | $44.67 | $92,910 |
General Hospitals & Surgical Centers | $42.16 | $87,700 |
Specialty Hospitals | $40.26 | $83,750 |
Colleges & Universities | $37.08 | $77,120 |
Your location can also influence your level of compensation in the field of medical science. While many of the top-paying jobs for medical scientists tend to be in more densely populated areas, you may be surprised to learn some of the states with the highest average wages for medical scientists.
Maine | $62.65 | $130,310 |
New Jersey | $61.94 | $128,830 |
Connecticut | $60.62 | $126,090 |
Rhode Island | $59.26 | $123,250 |
Pennsylvania | $54.56 | $113,490 |
The following cities pay the highest average salaries to medical scientists in the US.
New Haven, CT | $65.45 | $136,130 |
Kennewick, WA | $65.02 | $135,240 |
Trenton, NJ | $64.68 | $134,540 |
Bridgeport, CT | $62.41 | $129,810 |
Vallejo, CA | $61.76 | $128,470 |
Pine Bluff, AR | $60.76 | $126,390 |
Ventura, CA | $59.45 | $123,650 |
Providence, RI | $58.79 | $122,280 |
San Francisco, CA | $57.92 | $120,470 |
Stockton, CA | $57.03 | $118,620 |
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Research Article
Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft
* E-mail: [email protected]
Affiliation Department of Quality and Patient Care, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing
Affiliations Spaarne Gasthuis Hospital, Haarlem, The Netherlands, Erasmus School of Health, Policy and Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision
Affiliations Department IQ Healthcare, Radboudumc University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, HAN University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Affiliation Erasmus School of Health, Policy and Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
The work environment of healthcare professionals is important for good patient care and is receiving increasing attention in scientific research. A clear and unambiguous understanding of a positive work environment, as perceived by healthcare professionals, is crucial for gaining systematic objective insights into the work environment. The aim of this study was to gain consensus on the concept of a positive work environment in the hospital.
This was a three-round Delphi study to establish consensus on what defines a positive work environment. A literature review and 17 semi-structured interviews with experts (transcribed and analyzed by open and thematic coding) were used to generate items for the Delphi study.
The literature review revealed 228 aspects that were clustered into 48 work environment elements, 38 of which were mentioned in the interviews also. After three Delphi rounds, 36 elements were regarded as belonging to a positive work environment in the hospital.
The work environment is a broad concept with several perspectives. Although all 36 elements are considered important for a positive work environment, they have different perspectives. Mapping the included elements revealed that no one work environment measurement tool includes all the elements.
We identified 36 elements that are important for a positive work environment. This knowledge can be used to select the right measurement tool or to develop interventions for improving the work environment. However, the different perspectives of the work environment should be considered.
Citation: Maassen SM, van Oostveen C, Vermeulen H, Weggelaar AM (2021) Defining a positive work environment for hospital healthcare professionals: A Delphi study. PLoS ONE 16(2): e0247530. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530
Editor: Mohamad Alameddine, Mohammed bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Received: September 18, 2020; Accepted: February 9, 2021; Published: February 25, 2021
Copyright: © 2021 Maassen et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: The research was funded by the Citrien Fonds of ZonMW (grant 8392010042) and conducted on behalf of the Dutch Federation of University Medical Centers’ Quality Steering program: https://www.sturenopkwaliteit.nl The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
A positive work environment (WE) for healthcare professionals is important for good patient care [ 1 ]; it reduces hospital-acquired infection rates [ 2 – 4 ], hospital mortality [ 5 ], re-admissions [ 6 ], and adverse events [ 2 , 3 ]. Furthermore, a positive WE is strongly associated with attracting and retaining healthcare professionals [ 7 , 8 ], which is crucial in times of healthcare staff shortages, especially with regard to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the WE is receiving increasing attention in scientific research, with over 1.1 million hits on Google Scholar and almost 500,000 publications in the last five years.
The WE is a complex concept with several perspectives. Damschroder, Aron [ 9 ] define the WE as the inner setting of the organization where staff interact with the organization within which they work [ 9 ]. Others have added four WE contexts to this definition [ 4 , 9 ]. The first is the task context, which includes the work that needs to be performed, clarity of the role, and the workload. For the nurses’ WE, this has been defined as [ 10 ] ‘the organizational characteristics of a work setting that enable or constrain professional nursing practice’ and includes nursing foundations in quality of care, nurses’ participation in hospital policy, staffing and resources adequacy, and collegial nurse–physician relationships. The second WE context is the social context, which includes relations, interaction between employees, and teamwork [ 4 , 9 ]. A concept used to reflect the social context is e.g. the civility climate, described as ‘ shared perception of the extent to which an organization rewards , supports , and expects a) respect and acceptance , b) cooperation , c) supportive relationships between coworkers , and d) fair conflict resolution’ [ 11 , 12 ]. The third context is the physical context, which involves work safety, working conditions, labor environments, housing, and the physical and mental health of employees. Research has highlighted the impact this has on the constraints and complaints of employees, such as burnout [ 7 ] and the need for more sick leave [ 13 ]. The fourth context is organizational culture, which involves the values, norms, and culture [ 4 , 11 ] and has been defined as ‘the way we do things around here’ [ 14 ]. Research on organizational culture usually focuses on specific aspects, not the whole concept. For instance, safety culture is studied by researching aspects connected to the clinical setting, such as patient safety and learning from adverse events [ 11 , 14 ], whereas organizational culture considers the whole organization, including administration, technicians, and logistics, which have not been well studied so far [ 15 ].
Research has shown that achieving a positive WE is challenging for professionals working together in interprofessional teams, departments, organizations, and organization networks [ 16 ]. Because a positive WE is important for patients and employees, many organizations have embarked on efforts to measure their WE. However, there are many instruments for measuring the WE and these might lack consensus on which elements are important for a positive WE [ 17 , 18 ]. A clear and unambiguous understanding of the most important aspects for a positive WE, as perceived by healthcare professionals, is crucial if hospitals want to gain systematic objective insights into the WE. The purpose of this study was to gain consensus on the concept of a positive WE and to determine which elements define a positive WE in hospitals.
A three-round Delphi study was conducted to identify elements of a positive WE. The Delphi study is a group facilitation technique with an iterative multi-stage process designed to transform individual opinions into group consensus [ 19 , 20 ]. The Delphi technique provides the opportunity to involve individuals with diverse expertise and from several locations and backgrounds through a digital survey [ 20 ]. Because the WE has gained worldwide attention, we were able to involve international experts. We started by generating items followed by three Delphi study rounds ( Fig 1 ). CREDES (recommendations for Conducting and REporting of DElphi Studies) [ 21 ] was used to design and report the study.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.g001
Items pertaining to healthcare professionals’ WE were generated from a literature review [ 18 ] and semi-structured expert interviews.
We searched Embase, Medline Ovid, Web of Science, Cochrane CENTRAL, CINAHL EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar for literature on instruments used to measure perceptions of healthcare professionals about their hospital WE. This search identified 6397 papers. The four criteria for inclusion were: 1) written in English, 2) reporting an original WE measurement instrument for healthcare professionals in hospitals; 3) not a translation or adaptation of another instrument; and 4) description of psychometric properties and distributed items into factors for construct validity. Based on these criteria, 37 papers were eligible for inclusion (see Maassen, Weggelaar-Jansen [ 18 ] for more information). Next, we extracted the items (subscales) of the instruments. After extraction, three researchers sorted the items, discussed the clustering into 48 (potential) elements of WE, and agreed on a description of each element ( S1 Data ).
To ensure current opinions of WE were measured by the WE instruments, we conducted semi-structured expert interviews. The aim was to validate the elements found in the literature search. Participants responsible for WE in their organization were recruited from various backgrounds by convenience sampling ( Table 1 ). One researcher (SM) interviewed participants either in person (n = 15) or by video call (n = 2). The interviews began with an open defining question: w hich topics do you believe have a positive or negative influence on healthcare professionals’ WE ? Next, respondents were asked to illustrate their view with examples of a WE. Interviews were conducted until data saturation was reached. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using open and axial coding by one researcher (SM) to identify WE items ( S2 Data ). Two researchers (CO, AW) checked half of the analysis each.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.t001
Then, three researchers (AW, SM, CO) compared and discussed the WE elements derived from the interviews and literature search until consensus was achieved on the final list of elements and descriptions for the Delphi survey.
Selection of participants and ethics..
To obtain a solid understanding of a positive healthcare professionals’ WE in hospitals, we consulted an international, interdisciplinary Delphi panel with expertise in the WE or with practical experience in steering WE in hospitals. The following participants were selected:
Ethics approval was not necessary under Dutch law as no patient data were collected. Following the European Union General Data Protection Regulation, all potential participants first received an email inviting them to participate. Only those who gave informed consent to participate received the anonymous online Delphi survey. All collected data were anonymized and thus confidential.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.t002
A Delphi study should have at least two rounds so participants can give feedback and revise previous responses [ 22 ]. This study used three rounds so participants could provide feedback and reconsider responses, thereby preventing respondent fatigue [ 22 ].
Based on the literature review and interviews, the research team agreed an English description for each of the 48 elements to be used in the survey. The first draft of the questionnaire was pilot tested on content, flow, and clarity by two independent hospital policy advisors and the research team. The final first-round Delphi survey was administered digitally via LimeSurvey, an online survey web app ( https://www.limesurvey.com ). Two reminder emails were sent with an interval of seven days to non-responding participants. Participants were asked to rate to which extent an element belonged to the concept of positive WE using a 10-point scale ranging from one (not at all) to ten (totally). The 10-point rating scale is a commonly known rating scale for Delphi participants and widely used in Delphi studies [ 20 , 23 ]. A score of 8–10 was considered an agreement.
In the second round, all elements with consensus following the forward set threshold in the first round (see section ‘Data analysis and consensus’ for consensus method and thresholds) were presented to the participants to give them the opportunity to provide feedback. The remaining elements and their reformulated descriptions were resubmitted to the participants. Again, they were asked to assess the extent to which each item belongs to the concept of a positive WE on the same scale (from ‘not at all’ to ‘totally’). Participants were invited to provide feedback on all the elements to help the researchers reformulate the elements for round three. The same procedure, question, and rating scale were also used for the third and final Delphi round.
For this study, we defined consensus as a percentage of agreement on ‘element belongs to a positive WE’ [ 20 ]. Two thresholds for consensus were applied. The threshold for inclusion in the first and second rounds was set at 80%, indicating that >80% of the participants rated the element eight or higher. This threshold is slightly higher than the median Delphi threshold recommended by Diamond, Grant [ 20 ]. All elements scoring exactly 80% were presented again in the next round. An exclusion threshold was agreed if >50% of the participants rated an element seven or less. The research team reformulated all the remaining elements based on the respondents’ feedback. Elements scoring just below the exclusion threshold were evaluated by the research team and if there were reasons to believe that misjudgment was likely, the team discussed whether the element should be included in the next round [ 20 ]. For the last round, the threshold was set at 70%, according to Diamond’s recommendation, indicating that >70% of the participants rated the element eight or higher [ 20 ]. All elements that did not reach this threshold were excluded. The included elements were compared with the list of elements that were initially extracted by WE measurement tools in the literature review [ 18 ].
The literature review revealed 228 aspects that were clustered into 48 WE elements ( S1 Data ). Thirty-eight of these elements were further discussed by the 17 interview participants ( Table 3 and S2 Data ). The research team gave each element a description based on the literature review and interviews.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.t003
The WE elements mentioned most frequently in the interviews were presence of a supportive manager (n = 10), leadership (n = 9), autonomy (n = 7), supportive coworkers (n = 7), teamwork (n = 7), and structural and electronical resources available (n = 7). These elements were also frequently used in the WE measurement instruments studied in the literature. One exception was ‘job satisfaction’; this was often found in literature, but the respondents did not mention it.
In total, 88 participants received the Delphi questionnaires. The response rates in rounds 1, 2, and 3 were 88.9%, 66.7%, and 66.7%, respectively. Most respondents were employed in a university hospital during all three rounds and the mean age was 48 years ( Table 2 ).
After the first round, consensus was reached for 18 elements with percentages ranging from 82% to 95% ( Table 3 ). Three elements (‘professionalism and competency’, ‘conflict management’, and ‘employees as valuable partners’) exactly reached the 80% threshold for consensus and were presented again in round two. The element ‘participation in policy making’, which reached 50% consensus on exclusion, was reformulated. ‘Rewards’ and ‘performance measurement’ both scored below the 50% threshold. As a result, ‘Rewards’ was excluded but ‘performance measurement’ was reformulated and presented again in round 2 because the research team doubted the accuracy of the element description.
In the second round, 25/58 participants (43%) commented on the list of elements that reached consensus in round 1. All respondents recognized and acknowledged the list, although some questions arose about the unique identity of some elements. One respondent noted:
‘This is a good list . I recommend considering how some of these are connected . Consider if they are truly unique constructs’ (participant A).
After round two, four elements reached consensus: respect (82%), supportive coworkers (82%), supportive manager (82%), and supportive organizational atmosphere (81%). No element reached the exclusion threshold. Hence, the research team reformulated 25 elements based on the respondents’ comments. This resulted in almost identical descriptions of the elements ‘level of stress’ and ‘workload’, so we decided to merge both elements into ‘workload’ ( Table 3 ).
In the third round, 17/58 respondents (29%) commented on the list of elements that reached the threshold for consensus in round two. Although respondents recognized the elements on the list, concerns were raised about overlapping elements.
´This is a good list . Some items are at least very interconnected or perhaps similar . For example , aren’t autonomy and control over practice setting similar ? ’ (participant B).
The final Delphi round led to consensus on inclusion for 14 additional elements, ranging from 70% to 81% consensus > 8 ( Table 3 ). The ten remaining elements did not achieve the threshold of 70% for consensus and were excluded.
Mapping the 36 elements that reached consensus and the elements extracted from the measurement tools derived from the literature review [ 18 ] showed that between 2 and 14 elements are included in the WE instruments ( Table 4 ) and nine measurement tools included 11 or more elements [ 15 , 24 – 31 ]. The ten elements that did not reach consensus were frequently used in WE measurement tools, especially ‘conflict management’ and ‘participation and policy making’.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.t004
The purpose of this study was to gain consensus on the concept of a positive WE by describing which elements comprise a positive WE in hospitals. We identified 48 elements based on a literature review and 17 interviews. Of the 48 elements, 36 were confirmed by experts in the Delphi study. One element (‘rewards’) was excluded by experts in the first round, but was included in three measurement tools in the literature [ 28 , 32 , 33 ]. Ten elements were dropped because they did not reach the threshold in the final round. Our mapping showed that no WE measurement tool included every element. This may be due to the length of the tool. Some tools are rather short and include fewer elements, e.g., those developed by Siedlecki and Hixson [ 34 ] (13 items addressing four elements), Kennerly, Yap [ 35 ] (22 items addressing six elements), and Mays, Hrabe [ 36 ] (12 items addressing six elements).
As the Delphi participants indicated, some elements are similar, e.g., ‘scheduling’ and ‘staffing adequacy’ or ‘feeling valued’ and ‘employee as valuable partners’. The differences between them are based on perspective; the first is the employees’ perspective and the second is a more organizational perspective. Rugulies [ 8 ] distinguished the different perspectives according to the macro, meso, and micro level of WE. The macro level includes economic, social, and political structures; the meso level involves workplace structures and psychosocial working conditions; and the micro level includes individual experiences and cognitive and emotional processes [ 8 ]. We included meso- and micro-level elements in our WE elements because both levels are paramount in improving the WE for healthcare professionals. According to Rugulies [ 8 ], interventions to influence the WE are best done at the meso level where the employer can have an influence. However, input for these interventions comes from the micro level [ 37 ]. Which interventions are effective for which elements and how they work still remains unclear [ 16 , 38 ].
Our descriptions distinguish between concrete elements and broad abstract elements of the WE. For instance, ‘control over practice setting’ versus ‘autonomy’. Damschroder, Aron [ 9 ] used a broad definition for the WE that included all the elements found in our own Delphi study. Lee, Stone [ 4 ] further described four WE contexts: 1) task, 2) social, 3) physical, and 4) cultural. However, some of our elements belonged to multiple contexts, deriving from different research domains and perspectives. One example is ‘working conditions’–this element concerns how fit the environment is for the employees’ physical health and development, i.e., the physical context. On the other hand, this element also concerns how much time and how many resources employees can provide for their task, i.e., the task context.
Harrison, Henriksen [ 39 ] described the healthcare WE based on a sociotechnical system approach. The healthcare WE has three components: organization, personnel, and outcomes. Interactions between the organization and people components shape the outcome component and vice versa [ 39 ]. All three components can be observed from the organizational and individual perspective [ 39 ]. This distinction between task, social, cultural, and physical contexts of WE described by Lee, Stone [ 4 ] resonates in the organization and people component of the sociotechnical system. The outcome component added by Harrison, Henriksen [ 39 ] concerns quality of care and employee outcomes. The 36 elements we included cover all three components, including outcome-related elements such as ‘job satisfaction’ and ‘patient-centered culture’.
Finally, when basic physical needs such as ‘a good building’, ‘running water’, and ‘lighting’ are available, more attention is given to the task, social, and cultural contexts of WE [ 40 ]. Our Delphi list contained only two physical context elements of WE, which were derived from our literature review and interviews with participants from Western Europe and North America.
When measuring an employees’ experience of WE, it is important to determine in advance which elements are measured by preference and from which perspective. One needs to choose a psychometrically valid instrument that best fits these elements. We found nine WE measurement tools that include between 11 and 14 of the elements that we identified [ 15 , 24 – 31 ]. However, measuring all elements with one instrument will probably result in a long, user-unfriendly questionnaire. It would be interesting to study how we can blend several instruments to cover all elements. However, not every measurement tool has proven to be psychometrically valid and reliable [ 18 ]. It is wise to opt for a short, sound instrument that functions as a thermometer and identifies the WE areas that have issues. This could be followed by zooming in on the problem area with a specific in-depth instrument or qualitative method. Finally, achieving a positive WE is a responsibility shared by all members of a team, including management. Therefore, it is important to regularly discuss WE experiences with all team members to come to mutual understanding and create improvement initiatives.
Some limitations of this study warrant consideration. First, the response rate decreased between Delphi rounds 1 and 2 by 22%, despite two reminders emails sent during each round. Attrition of participants is a common phenomenon with the Delphi methodology [ 41 ] and influences the results. Nevertheless, the samples in all three rounds can be considered comparable. Second, this Delphi study included only experts from Western Europe and North America. This may have caused selection bias, since perceptions of WE are context-driven [ 16 , 40 ]. Some caution with generalization is therefore recommended. Third, we chose a Delphi model with three pre-defined rounds. Although this is a known form of consensus establishment [ 20 , 41 ], it might have led to the premature inclusion or exclusion of elements. It remains unclear what could have happened if a fourth round had been held. Fourth, the use of a 10-point rating scale may have led to some bias due to the risk of variation in interpretation by the participants. Nevertheless, we consider this 10-point rating scale as the best option for our context and research sample.
This research has refined the broad description of WE–as the inner setting of the organization where staff interplay with the organization within which they work [ 4 , 9 ]–by conducting a literature review, interviews with experts, and a Delphi study. We found 36 elements that were considered relevant for a positive WE and believe that a positive WE measurement tool should include these 36 elements. However, none of the current WE measurement tools include all 36 elements. It might be interesting to further develop or integrate existing WE measurement tools to measure all the elements.
A positive WE is important for providing optimal patient care and attracting and retaining healthcare professionals. Measuring the WE can help healthcare management to improve negative WEs. However, how or with which interventions this can be done is not clear yet. The results of this study enable decision-making for a measurement tool. However, it is important to consider different perspectives when measuring and improving the WE.
S1 data. overview elements from literature including complete reference list of the included papers..
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.s001
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247530.s002
The authors thank all participants of the interviews and Delphi rounds for their willingness to contribute and share their views.
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The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed healthcare personnel's working environment and sense of security. Medical laboratory scientists were also faced with new occupational challenges. They were tasked with performing novel tests for SARS-CoV-2 without being aware of the associated risks. At the beginning of the pandemic, strict sanitary requirements and the fear of becoming infected with the “new virus” were considerable sources of stress. However, these stress responses abated over time. The aim of this two-stage study was to explore the extent to which this group of medical professionals adapted to new working conditions 1 year after the outbreak of the pandemic. The study was conducted at the beginning of the fourth pandemic wave in Poland, i.e., between 10 September and 31 October 2021. The first stage was a pilot study that involved interviews with 14 medical laboratory scientists. The results were used to perform a survey of 294 laboratory scientists in the second stage. The study investigated the problems and fears faced by this professional group at the beginning of the pandemic, as well as changes in their attitudes during successive waves of COVID-19. The analyzed data demonstrated that most medical laboratory scientists had grown accustomed to the pandemic and workplace changes by the beginning of the fourth wave. The study also indicates that in addition to adequate means of personal protection, health professionals should also be provided with emotional support in times of pandemic.
In late 2019, the world's eyes were on China and the increasingly worrying reports on the emergence of a new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It soon became apparent that SARS-CoV-2 was the cause of the global COVID-19 pandemic which paralyzed the entire world ( 1 , 2 ). The first case of SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed in Poland on 4 March 2020. As of that date, medical personnel found themselves in a new and uncertain reality that posed numerous challenges. Physicians, nurses, and emergency medical services came into direct contact with COVID-19 patients. Medical technologists and other laboratory personnel were tasked with analyzing biological specimens to identify patients infected with SARS-CoV-2.
The pandemic elicited strong emotions in the medical community. Medical professionals were highly motivated to fight the new enemy, help patients and save lives, but at the same time, they were afraid of becoming infected and transmitting the disease to their families. In addition to psychological stress, medical personnel had to deal with a deficiency of personal protective equipment (PPE), staff shortages, overwhelming fatigue and disinformation. Medical professionals are exposed to pathogens on a daily basis, and they are particularly susceptible to infections. Advanced PPE is needed to create a safe and effective work environment for medical personnel ( 3 ). However, according to the official data published by the Polish Ministry of Health, 81,844 nurses, 32,872 physicians, 13,410 physiotherapists, 8,416 midwives, 4,616 pharmacists, 4,116 paramedics, 3,986 dentists, and 3,146 laboratory scientists became infected with SARS-CoV-2, whereas 251 physicians, 201 nurses, 24 midwives, 22 pharmacists, seven physiotherapists, seven paramedics, and five laboratory scientists died due to COVID-19 between the beginning of the pandemic and 5 December 2021, despite the fact that strict protective measures had been put into place ( 4 ).
Medical laboratory scientists also bore the brunt of the health disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Until recently, this relatively small group of medical professionals has been largely neglected in public discourse. Medical technologists performing laboratory analyses remain largely anonymous, and very few people are aware that the results of diagnostic tests influence more than 70% of medical decisions ( 5 ). During the pandemic, this group of healthcare workers stepped out of the shadow because medical laboratories were tasked with performing thousands of PCR tests to confirm SARS-CoV-2 infections. The public and the authorities became aware that laboratory personnel play a crucial role in healthcare. Special guidelines were issued for dealing with specimens for SARS-CoV-2 testing, as well as all biological samples collected from patients with confirmed or suspected COVID-19. Similarly to other medical personnel, laboratory scientists became overwhelmed by the immense burden of COVID-19 and rigorous sanitary measures, but they rose to the challenge. This study had been conducted before pandemic restrictions were lifted, but by that time, medical workers' emotional responses to the health crisis clearly differed from their attitudes at the beginning of the pandemic ( 5 , 6 ).
The main research question was: to what extent have laboratory technologists' attitudes to work-related hazards changed between 11 March 2020 [when the WHO declared the novel coronavirus outbreak a global pandemic ( 7 )] and October 2021 (which marked the beginning of the fourth wave in Poland). We tested the research hypothesis postulating that medical laboratory scientists had gradually adapted to dangerous working conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Changes in attitudes toward occupational hazards were analyzed among laboratory scientists who were and were not responsible for testing biological specimens for SARS-CoV-2.
The emotional well-being of medical staff during the pandemic has been widely researched around the world. However, the problems associated with the quality of the work environment, new duties and challenges have not been analyzed in detail to date ( 8 – 14 ). Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the ways in which medical laboratory scientists adapted to the new reality. The results were used to formulate recommendations for creating a safe work environment in dangerous circumstances.
The study was conducted between 10 September and 31 October 2021 in two stages: fist pilot stage (qualitative, based on in-depth interviews) and second stage (quantitative, based on on-line questionnaire).
Mixed methods design was used for the study ( 15 ). On the first stage (pilot study) qualitative method – face-to-face in-depth interview - was used to explore and obtain depth of understanding of the research area related to the work of the respondents. The main research questions of the pilot phase and overall study were: (1) what challenges accompanied the work of diagnosticians during a pandemic, and (2) how these challenges changed with the changing situation and progressive adaptation.
On the second stage, quantitative method (on-line questionnaire) were used to test and confirm hypotheses based on the obtained knowledge from the first stage ( 16 ).
Medical laboratory scientists employed in both public and private laboratories participated in both stages of the study.
The first stage of the study was a qualitative pilot study that involved 14 laboratory scientists from the Polish Region of Warmia and Mazury. The respondents were selected by purposeful sampling. The research consisted in conducting face-to-face in-depth interviews with selected people. The interviews was based on the standardized questionnaire containing 10 open questions about: type of work, workplace experience at the beginning of the pandemic and on the day of the survey, emotional responses during the pandemic, sense of being appreciated, sense of security, and the main concerns. The interviews lasted from 20 to 45 min. Upon the participants' consent, the interviews were recorded, transcribed and coded following content analysis aimed at identifying the frequencies of data and themes. Obtained responses were divided into categories and the main problems and became categories for the nation-wide quantitative survey. The laboratory scientists interviewed in the first stage of the study are characterized in Table 1 .
Description of the surveyed population in stage 1 – qualitative pilot study ( N = 14).
= 14) | ||
---|---|---|
Age | 28–63 (mean: 42) | |
Sex | Male Female | 2 (14%) 12 (86%) |
Education | Master's degree in healthcare analytics Master's degree in biology Master's degree in biotechnology Master's degree in environmental protection | 7 (50%) 4 (29%) 2 (14%) 1 (7%) |
Workplace | Laboratory in a public hospital Laboratory in a public healthcare facility Laboratory in a private healthcare facility | 12 (86%) 1 (7%) 1 (7%) |
The participants for the second stage of study (quantitative survey) were selected by purposeful sampling. The subjects received a link to an online questionnaire by e-mail and were asked to forward the link to their colleagues (snowball sampling). A total of 294 medical laboratory scientists participated in the study. The majority of the participants did not have specialty training (67.3%) and were employed in public hospital laboratories (52%). The population investigated in the second stage of the study is characterized in Table 2 .
Description of the surveyed population in stage 2 – quantitative survey ( N = 294).
Education | Medical laboratory scientist without specialty training Medical laboratory scientist with specialty training Medical laboratory scientist - other | 198 (67.3%) 92 (31.3%) 4 (1.4%) |
Place of employment | Laboratory in a public hospital Laboratory in a public outpatient facility Laboratory in a private healthcare facility (hospital) Laboratory in a private healthcare facility Other or more than one place of work | 153 (52%) 20 (6.8%) 43 (14.6%) 49 (16.7%) 29 (9.9%) |
The questionnaire comprised 18 questions in the following categories: demographic data, type and place of work, working conditions, work during the COVID-19 pandemic (battery of 14 subcategories on Likert's scale), psychological support, emotions (battery of seven subcategories on Likert's scale), problems with professional performance during the pandemic, sense of being appreciated by various social groups, perceptions of risk, work-related fears at the beginning of the pandemic and on the day of the survey (two questions with seven subcategories), vaccination, and current challenges.
The obtained data from the nation-wide quantitative survey were processed with the use of the IBM SPSS Statistics 27 software platform. The correlations between the variables were assessed by calculating the Pearson correlation coefficient.
The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland (approval No. 3/2022).
The detailed objective of the pilot study was to identify new challenges facing medical technologists during the health crisis. It should be noted that the study was conducted ~1 year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the participants were able to reflect on their experiences and emotions at the beginning of the pandemic and compare their initial attitudes and feelings with those reported on the day of the survey. Based on the interviews (1st qualitative stage), the following categories were distinguished as shown in Figure 1 .
Interview responses regarding the experience from the beginning of the pandemic ( N = 14).
The categories from the interviews were converted into questions in the quantitative survey. The introduction of a strict sanitary regime at the beginning of the pandemic was recognized as the most severe problem by 95.5% of the surveyed subjects. The lack of reliable information, recommendations and guidelines for medical laboratory personnel was identified as a significant problem by 79.9% of the respondents.
Other adverse consequences of the COVID-19 crisis included: (1) increased workload (84% of the respondents who tested biological specimens for SARS-CoV-2; 69% of the respondents who did not perform such tests), (2) longer working hours (59.2 and 44%, respectively), and (3) additional work shifts (52.5 and 25%, respectively). All of the above factors significantly ( p < 0.001) affected medical laboratory scientists who tested biological specimens for the virus, which implies that this group was more influenced by the adverse changes in the workplace.
The health crisis was a major cause of stress, but the studied subjects did not report emotional disorders such as depression, insomnia, or despair. At the beginning of the pandemic, 80.3% of the respondents had a fear of becoming infected or transmitting the virus to their families (86%). However, no significant differences were found between medical laboratory scientists who had and had not tested specimens for SARS-CoV-2.
The study tested the research hypothesis postulating that medical laboratory scientists had gradually adapted to dangerous working conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. And indeed medical scientists fears and discomfort abated over time. The respondents did not struggle with psychological issues (depression, insomnia, despair) during the pandemic and did not experience intense stress or fear, which could be attributed to the fact that unlike front line medical personnel, most laboratory scientists do not come into direct or prolonged contact with patients with confirmed or suspected COVID-19. It should also be noted that 34% of the respondents had not directly analyzed clinical specimens, i.e., they had not tested respiratory tract samples which are most infectious.
Despite the above, the majority of the surveyed subjects (66%) were of the opinion that psychological assistance would enable them to better cope with work-related stress. However, only 8 out of the 294 analyzed respondents had received such assistance.
When asked about their experiences and emotions at the beginning of the pandemic and one year into the crisis, the surveyed scientists were of the opinion that they had largely adapted to the new situation: they reported lower levels of fatigue (decrease of 3%), less stress associated with health safety protocols (decrease of 7%), and staff shortages (decrease of 14%). The percentage of medical laboratory scientists who had adapted to the health crisis increased from 4% at the beginning of the pandemic to 19% on the day of the survey ( Table 3 ; Figure 2 ).
Changes in perceptions of the health crisis since the beginning of the pandemic ( N = 294).
Did not experience fear | 3% (8) | 7% (21) |
Staff shortages | 49% (145) | 35% (102) |
Not much has changed during the pandemic | 8% (22) | 13% (38) |
Became adapted to the new situation | 4% (13) | 19% (55) |
New laboratory tests / increased workload | 2% (6) | 2% (6) |
Safety protocols | 10% (28) | 3% (9) |
Fatigue | 24% (71) | 21% (62) |
Social recognition of medical laboratory personnel was a frequently raised issue during in-depth interviews in the first stage of the study. According to one of the respondents, “our work is still not appreciated by our superiors or the government.” Medical laboratory scientists have received greater praise from the public, “but we still work in the shadow of other medical professions. People feel more grateful to physicians and nurses” [B.1].
According to the surveyed subjects, the attitudes toward laboratory professionals have changed during the pandemic as more people became aware of their role in combatting the health crisis. “Before the pandemic, most people had no clue about laboratory work. This has changed because during the pandemic, people turned to us for advice about COVID-19 and screening tests” [B.8]. However, many respondents continue to experience a deep sense of injustice: “Our work is not recognized by our superiors, the government or the public. Only we are aware the extent to which our efforts have contributed to ending the pandemic” [B.3]. Similar sentiments were expressed by all participants. One of the respondents said: “I have been praised for my work, and I have been told that the hospital would have to close without our input, and that laboratory technologists are the driving force toward combating the crisis. We received bonuses from the government in recognition of our hard work. When it comes to social gratitude, my family definitely appreciate what I do, and they are proud of me. The medical technologist's profession has gained some recognition during the pandemic. Most people think that lab tests are done by nurses, and perhaps the pandemic has raised awareness levels. Still, this is not enough” [B.9]. However, growing levels of social awareness also prompted some people to fear medical laboratory scientists during the pandemic. “I don't know if our work is more appreciated. Some neighbors who know where I work would run away as soon as they saw me” [B.10].
The quantitative survey in the second stage of the study confirmed that laboratory technologists felt largely undervalued ( Figures 3 – 5 ). When asked whether they had received due recognition from their superiors during the pandemic, 59.2% (174) of the respondents answered in the negative, and only 13.3% (39) replied in the affirmative, whereas the remaining subjects (27.6%, 81) were undecided (“hard to say”). The respondents felt even more neglected by the authorities: 84.4% (248) did not feel appreciated, 10.2% (30) were undecided, and only 5.4% (16) felt appreciated. In the pilot survey, most of the respondents argued that they had received recognition mainly from their public, but these observations were not confirmed in the second survey conducted on a larger population. In the second survey, the majority of medical laboratory scientists claimed that “nothing has changed” (70.4%, 207); 7.5% (22) were of the opinion that their work was more appreciated, whereas the remaining participants (22.1%, 65) were undecided.
Have you been appreciated by your employer? ( N = 294).
Have you been appreciated by the society? ( N = 294).
Have you been appreciated by the rulers? ( N = 294).
At the end of presenting the results, it should be mentioned that one of our initial assumptions has not been confirmed, that work that involved testing biological specimens for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 was the main variable differentiating the examined population. In stage two of the study (nation-wide quantitative survey), most of the participants (66%) had tested biological specimens for the virus, whereas 34% of the respondents had not performed such tests. However, the statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in feelings of discomfort or low mood between these groups. The new situation posed a considerable challenge for both groups of participants who did not differ significantly in their emotional attitudes. The analyzed grouped differed significantly only in their attitudes toward an increased workload, and this problem was significantly ( p < 0.001, Pearson's correlation) more often reported by medical laboratory scientists who tested biological specimens for SARS-CoV-2. This observation could be explained by the fact that both groups had similar attitudes to the examined problems in an increased sanitary regime. Due to the absence of significant differences, the division of the studied population into two groups was abandoned, and successive analyses were conducted based on descriptive statistics.
This study was conducted to investigate the emotions and fears experienced by laboratory staff at the onset of the pandemic, and the extent to which these feelings changed in the course of the pandemic.
Healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses, paramedics, and laboratory scientists, are indispensable in the process of treating COVID-19 infections. Medical personnel are more susceptible to COVID-19 than the general population because they come into direct contact with infected individuals and biological specimens collected from patients. Increased workload under immense pressure, fear of infection, and staff shortages contribute to burnout and mental health issues in healthcare professionals ( 3 ).
Pappa et al. ( 10 ) and Wu et al. ( 8 ) conducted meta-analyses of more than 80 research studies performed around the world and reported a growing incidence of emotional problems, including depression, insomnia, despair, and anxiety, in healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic. These problems were most prevalent in medical employees who came into direct contact with patients, i.e., physicians, nurses, and paramedics ( 17 ).
There is a general scarcity of reliable data that could confirm or rule out the risk of infection with SARS-CoV-2 through contact with an infected patient's blood or urine. Viremia was reported in 15% of the first COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, China, but the risk of viral transmission to medical personnel, including medical laboratory scientists, was evaluated as low if adequate security protocols and PPE were applied ( 18 ). Genetic and antigen tests for SARS-CoV-2 are performed in laminar flow cabinets, and laboratory technologists wear PPE, which significantly reduces the risk of infection. According to the surveyed medical laboratory scientists, the availability of PPE was low in the 1st months of the pandemic, but it improved gradually over time ( 13 , 18 , 19 ).
The implementation of a strict sanitary regime was a source of significant distress and discomfort for more than 90% of the studied population. Prolonged use of PPE and disinfectants can contribute to allergies, in particular respiratory and skin allergies, allergic conjunctivitis, and acute generalized allergic reactions. These conditions are classified as occupational diseases. Research into the use of PPE during a previous SARS epidemic in Singapore revealed adverse skin reactions in medical personnel wearing N95 masks (35% of users) and protective gloves (21% of users) ( 20 ). In a Polish study analyzing hand skin problems in laboratory technologists, 98% of the surveyed subjects reported allergies and rashes after prolonged use of protective gloves and disinfecting agents ( 21 ).
Some researchers have argued that the COVID-19 infection caused by SARS-CoV-2 should be classified as an occupational disease resulting from exposure to harmful agents in the workplace or associated with the performed duties. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the USA developed a classification system for assessing the risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in the workplace. According to the proposed classification, healthcare workers (including physicians, nurses, dentists, and paramedics) and medical laboratory scientists who collect and/or analyze samples from patients with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 are at very high risk of contracting the disease ( 22 ). The described classification system also states that workers at high risk of COVID-19 infection, including physicians, nurses, paramedics, as well as laboratory scientists, should receive psychological support ( 23 – 26 ). These types of solutions have been implemented in some Chinese and Italian hospitals ( 27 ). Support schemes targeting not only frontline personnel, but all medical sector employees would also considerably benefit healthcare professionals in Poland. Medical laboratory scientists have adapted to the pandemic, but the risk of new SARS-CoV-2 mutations or pandemics caused by new pathogens causes a lot of uncertainty about the future. It should be noted that the respondents did not worry only about their health and lives. They also voiced concerns about the Polish economy (36.9%), the possibility of successive lockdowns (23.8%), low levels of preparedness in the public healthcare system (21.1%), and new virus mutations. These results indicate that medical laboratory scientists, as well as other healthcare professionals, are not only self-preoccupied and have more cause for concern than the representatives of non-medical professions.
The main strength of this study is that it makes the first ever attempt to analyze medical laboratory workers' adaptation to new working conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic and focuses mainly on their emotional well-being. The present findings probably also apply to other healthcare professionals. It is worth noting that the study involved a nationwide survey. The limitations include the fact that the first stage of the study involved only medical laboratory scientists working in various health care units, but in the same city.
Medical laboratory scientists have gradually adapted to their work environment in a new reality during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to 34% of the respondents, their sense of security increased in successive months of the pandemic. According to 24% of the surveyed subjects, their anxiety was considerably alleviated by the introduction of the vaccination program at the beginning of 2020. However, nearly 20% of the analyzed laboratory technologists felt “pressured” to become vaccinated. The vaccination rate in this professional group was estimated at 90% ( 27 ), which indicates that a large number of laboratory scientists received the vaccine despite personal beliefs.
At the beginning of the fourth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland, medical laboratory scientists' concerns did not focus solely on their professional duties. They had to deal with strong emotions, as well as concerns about their health and families. At present, they are concerned mainly about the Polish economy. These results confirm that Polish medical laboratory scientists have largely adapted to the new reality.
Based on the results of the present study, the following recommendations can be formulated to improve the performance of medical laboratory scientists who faced considerable pressure and uncertainty in a difficult and changing work environment during the COVID-19 pandemic:
Author contributions.
Conceptualization: BW-B and AB. Methodology and data curation: SM. Software, formal analysis, investigation, writing—original draft preparation, and writing—review and editing: BW-B and SM. Validation and resources: BW-B, AB, and SM. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
The authors would like to thank all medical laboratory scientists who participated in the study.
Employment law clinic—significant achievements for 2023-24.
During the past academic year, the Employment Law Clinic has continued its work helping pro se plaintiffs in employment discrimination cases in federal court. This work includes representing pro se plaintiffs as their Settlement Assistance Counsel in individual discrimination cases and representing pro se plaintiffs in their appeals to the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals. In addition, the Employment Law Clinic has expanded its work with pro se plaintiffs by participating in the William J. Hibbler Memorial Pro Se Assistance Program. This program allows students in the Employment Law Clinic to provide pro se plaintiffs with advice about procedural issues in their cases. Some of the significant developments in a few of the Clinic’s cases are detailed below.
Clinical Professor Randall D. Schmidt and his students are appointed on a regular basis to provide representation to pro se plaintiffs at settlement conferences. Since starting this project in early 2021, Professor Schmidt has been appointed as Settlement Assistance Counsel for pro se plaintiffs in twenty employment discrimination cases. Although most of these cases were pending in the Eastern Division of the Northern District of Illinois, he has also been appointed in cases pending the Western Division of the Northern District of Illinois and in the Central District of Illinois.
These cases allow students to interview the client, research the legal and factual issues in the case, draft a settlement demand letter, represent the client at a settlement conference, and, if the case settles, draft the settlement agreement.
Professor Schmidt and his students have been very successful in resolving these cases. Of the twenty cases Professor Schmidt and his students have handled, fourteen were settled after one of more mediation sessions. Five are still pending awaiting the initial or follow-up settlement conference. One case did not settle and the plaintiff recently lost her case when the court granted the defendant’s motion for summary judgment.
Below are a few examples of cases that Professor Schmidt and his students handled during the 2023-24 academic year. Each of these cases resulted in a settlement after one or more mediation sessions. Pursuant to the settlement agreements in these lawsuits the details of the settlements are confidential.
In October 2016, Devonia Jackson began working for Robert W. Baird & Co. (“Baird”) as an Administrative Assistant in its Milwaukee, Wisconsin office. Baird is a global investment-banking firm that provides private investment services to mid-market businesses.
While employed by Baird, Ms. Shaw received several promotions and pay increases in recognition of her excellent performance. In 2018, Ms. Jackson relocated to Baird’s Virginia office. In two months she raised concerns over the abusive behavior of a lead banker and transferred to the Chicago office.
In 2020, Ms. Jackson began reporting to a new supervisor. From the beginning of their professional relationship, the new supervisor treated Ms. Jackson differently from other employees. The supervisor was often dismissive of Ms. Jackson’s concerns. Without asking Ms. Jackson, she reassigned Ms. Jackson’s to work with junior bankers. The supervisor told Ms. Jackson that she was “scared of working” with her, despite being Ms. Jackson’s supervisor.
Suddenly and without warning, Baird discharged Ms. Jackson in August 2021. In support of its decision to discharge Ms. Jackson’s termination, Baird cited two incidents in which Ms. Jackson was allegedly insubordinate. Ms. Jackson disputed that she was insubordinate during either incident. Moreover, no one at Baird raised concerns about either incident until Ms. Jackson was discharged. Ms. Jackson’s supervisors neither warned Ms. Jackson about the incidents before her termination nor gave her a chance to explain herself, even though she had a history of being a high-performing employee.
In addition, Baird did not terminate other similarly situated, substantially younger, Administrative Assistants whose job performance and/or behavior at work was alleged to have been insubordinate. After discharging Ms. Jackson, Baird assigned Ms. Jackson’s duties to younger employees.
Finally, after Ms. Jackson left Baird, she found out that between August 2020 and August 2021 Baird terminated ten administrators, all of whom were over the age of forty. The employees who had been terminated were also highly experienced—many had over ten years of experience at Baird— and in an older age group. They, too, were replaced by younger employees.
Ms. Jackson filed a pro se complaint against Baird and alleged that its termination of her employment violated the Age Discrimination in Employment Act. During discovery, the parties indicated to the court that they were interested in participating a settlement conference. Accordingly, the court appointed Professor Schmidt to serve as Mr. Lara’s Settlement Assistance Counsel. The parties were able to agree to a settlement during the initial settlement conference and the case was dismissed.
P.F.A. Systems, Inc., is a regional trucking company that transports liquid hazardous materials. P.F.A. hired Seneca Johnson as a truck driver in February 2022. At the time he was hired, Mr. Johnson told his supervisor that as an accommodation to his disability (a lower back injury), he needed to be assigned to drive trucks with automatic transmissions. Mr. Johnson was told that it would not be a problem to provide this accommodation to him.
Despite P.F.A.’s assurance that it would provide Mr. Johnson with an automatic transmission truck, P.F.A. forced Mr. Johnson to drive a 13-speed manual transmission truck, which caused severe pain, numbness in his leg and exacerbated Mr. Johnson’s back injury. Mr. Johnson complained to P.F.A. about its failure to assign him to a truck with an automatic transmission. In response, P.F.A. informed Mr. Johnson that the automatic truck had been given to another driver because that driver’s truck had to be fixed.
A few days later, Mr. Johnson again requested that P.F.A. accommodate his disability by assigning him to a truck with an automatic transmission. His immediate supervisor told him that he needed to “deal with it or find another job.” The supervisor also said, “P.F.A. and I don’t care about people with disabilities. We’re not going to make special accommodations for people with disabilities.” Mr. Johnson told the supervisor that he and P.F.A. were discriminating against people with disabilities. The supervisor retorted that P.F.A. does not hire people with disabilities. In response to Mr. Johnson’s statement that it is against the law for a company to turn down a qualified person because of their disabilities, the supervisor said, “Then you are at the wrong company. We don’t play by those rules.”
A week later. P.F.A. discharged Mr. Johnson claiming it did not have enough work for him. At the same time, P.F.A. was running help wanted ads seeking truck drivers.
Mr. Johnson filed a lawsuit against P.F.A. alleging that it violated the Americans with Disability Act by (1) failing to provide a reasonable accommodation for his disability and (2) retaliating against him for asserting his statutory rights. After most of the discovery had been competed in the case, Professor Schmidt was appointed to represent Mr. Johnson as his Settlement Assistance Counsel. The matter was resolved a few months later.
Lazaro Lara worked for Health Track Sports and Wellness, LLC, (“Health Track”), a health and fitness club, for sixteen years. Mr. Lara was diagnosed with ADHD, anxiety, and depression, which qualifies as an impairment under the Americans with Disabilities Act. Early in his employment, Mr. Lara informed his employers of his disability.
Beginning in April 2020, Health Track subjected Mr. Lara to a severe and pervasive hostile work environment. Mr. Lara’s supervisor and his co-workers routinely harassed Mr. Lara on the basis of his disabilities, calling him “crazy” and taunting him that he “suffer[ed] from schizophrenia.” They hounded Mr. Lara about his medical issues, telling him that his medication was not working and that he needed additional medical intervention. They would change his schedule without notice, including forcing him to work in person during the COVID pandemic while others were allowed to stay home. To ensure compliance with their orders, Health Track threatened to strip Mr. Lara of his health insurance.
Mr. Lara suffered damage to his mental health that significantly affected his quality of life because of the severity of Health Track’s hostile work environment. As Lara’s condition worsened, he took two steps to try to stop the harassment. First, he requested a few specific accommodations: that all of his work tasks be put in writing, that he receive clear instructions, that he be put on a schedule to keep track of his hours and to avoid management changing it without notice, and that he have access to a quiet place as needed. Health Track, however, failed to provide these requested accommodations.
Second, after Health Track ignored his requested accommodations, he filed a charge of discrimination with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in January 2021. In the charge, Mr. Lara alleged that he had requested reasonable accommodations for his disabilities and Health Track refused to provide those accommodations. Mr. Lara further alleged that his co-workers subjected him to harassment because of his disabilities.
Subsequently, in late March 2021, Mr. Lara attended a meeting with his supervisors for the express purpose of discussing Mr. Lara’s accommodations not being met and the harassment. However, during the meeting, the supervisor tried to convince Mr. Lara that he was not mentally stable and that Mr. Lara needed to find someone to “take care of his affairs.” Further, the supervisor told Mr. Lara that he would never allow Mr. Lara to work due to his mental condition—even though Mr. Lara’s doctor had cleared him to work—and that Health Track did not have any hours for him if he tried to return. The supervisor pushed Mr. Lara to resign, guaranteeing him that he could retain health insurance through COBRA or the American Rescue Plan if he chose to resign. Mr. Lara refused to resign at any point during the meeting or thereafter. At the meeting’s end, the supervisor told Mr. Lara to take a few days off, assuring him that Health Track would investigate the issues and get back to him with their conclusions.
The next time Mr. Lara heard from Health Track was two weeks later in April 2021. At that time, Health Track informed Mr. Lara that he had voluntarily resigned and that he was no longer an employee of Health Track.
Mr. Lara filed a lawsuit against Health Track alleging that its actions violated the Americans with Disabilities Act. In his complaint, Mr. Lara alleged that Health Track failed to accommodate Mr. Lara’s disabilities and subjected him to a severe and pervasive hostile work environment due to his disabilities during his employment. Mr. Lara also claimed that his discharge was in retaliation for his filing the EEOC charge and complaining about the discrimination and harassment.
Shortly after the case was filed, the court appointed Professor Schmidt to serve as Mr. Lara’s Settlement Assistance Counsel. After several settlement conferences, the parties were able to agree to a settlement and the case was dismissed.
Donna Shaw worked for the Chicago School of Professional Psychology (“TCSPP”) for seven years. TCSPP is an accredited, nonprofit university that offers bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs in psychology and related behavioral science fields. TCSPP has in-person campuses in seven metropolitan areas, including Chicago and San Diego, and an online campus.
Throughout her time at TCSPP, Ms. Shaw was discriminated against due to her race, color, and age. Most significantly, Ms. Shaw’s superiors created a hostile work environment for Ms. Shaw and repeatedly denied her promotions to positions that she is qualified to fill. On each occasion, instead of promoting Ms. Shaw, TCSPP promoted younger, less qualified, non-Black individuals. When Ms. Shaw complained about her treatment and the denial of promotions, TCSPP retaliated against her.
Ms. Shaw filed a pro se complaint of discrimination against TCSPP. In her complaint, Ms. Shaw alleged that TCSPP’s failure to take steps to end and prevent the hostile work environment and its failure to promote her violated Title and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act. Shortly after TCSPP filed its answer, the court appointed Professor Schmidt as Ms. Shaw’s Settlement Assistance Counsel and set the case for a settlement conference. The parties were able to reach a settlement during the settlement conference and the case was dismissed.
In early 2024, the Employment Law Clinic expanded its work with pro se litigants by participating in the William J. Hibbler Memorial Pro Se Assistance Program (“Hibler Help Desk”). The Hibbler Help Desk is administered by the People’s Law Center in cooperation with the District Court and the Chicago Bar Foundation. It is “staffed” by volunteer attorneys. It serves pro se litigants in civil cases filed or to be filed in the federal court for the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern and Western Divisions. A Program attorney provides pro se litigants with limited legal assistance with their cases. In particular, the Hibbler Help Desk provides pro se litigants with help on procedural issues, not substantive legal advice.
The Employment Law Clinic began helping pro se litigants in February 2024. Since then, students in the Clinic have met with and assisted more than twenty-five pro se litigants. The assistance we have provided includes helping clients complete the documents needed to file a pro se employment discrimination complaint; providing guidance on submitting Fed. R. Civ. P. 26(a) initial disclosures, written discovery requests and responses; help in complying with the NDIL’s rules regarding motions to compel discovery; explaining the status of the pro se’s case or appeal; referring clients to resources that could assist them with the substantive legal issues in their cases; and referring pro se’s other providers of civil legal services or to social service agencies.
The Employment Law Clinic represents clients in a number of appeals in the US Court Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. In some of these appeals, the Employment Law Clinic represents the appellants in their appeals. In other reconsiderations appeals, the Clinic is contacted and asked to participate as amicus curiae. Students working on these appeals write the briefs and present oral argument to the Seventh Circuit. Both Professor Schmidt and Lecturer in Law James Whitehead supervise the students in the appeals pending in the Seventh Circuit.
Mary Bell is currently working for the United States Post Office (“Postal Service”). On November 22, 2022, Ms. Bell filed her pro se Complaint alleging that the Postal Service discriminated against her with respect to overtime pay and by refusing to downgrade her position. In response, the Postal Service moved to dismiss the complaint, in part, because Ms. Bell had not received a right-to-sue letter from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission before filing her complaint. Thus, according to the Postal Service, Ms. Bell’s complaint was premature. Contrary to the Postal Service’s motion, Ms. Bell had in fact received a right-to-sue letter from the EEOC after filing her complaint and prior to the Postal Service’s filing of its motion to dismiss. This fact was not brought to the court’s attention, even though the Postal Service had received a copy of the right-to-sue letter, the court agreed and dismissed the complaint.
The Employment Law Clinic decided to submit an amicus brief in support of Ms. Bell because this case presents several issues of significant importance to the rights of individuals to pursue federal employment discrimination claims in court. In particular, the Employment Law Clinic argues that the district court incorrectly dismissed Ms. Bell’s claims because she had not filed an Amended Complaint raising the claims within ninety days of her receipt of a right-to-sue letter. The court, however, ignored the fact that she had raised the claims in her prematurely filed complaint before receiving the right-to-sue letter. In so doing, the district court disregarded the Seventh Circuit’s settled law that her receipt of the right-to-sue letter before the dismissal of her complaint had cured the Complaint’s premature filing.
The case is currently being briefed.
Mr. Thomas works for JBS Green Bay, one of the world’s largest meat producers. In his complaint, he alleged that his employer discriminated against him due to his color with respect to several terms and conditions of his employment, in violation of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Relying on the Seventh Circuit’s standard for establishing justiciable adverse employment actions in discrimination cases, the district court dismissed Mr. Thomas’s Complaint and Amended Complaint. The court concluded that the actions he complained of were not “materially adverse” as a matter of law.
Mr. Thomas appealed and asked the Employment Law Clinic to represent him in his appeal. The Employment Law agreed to do so because of its interest in clarifying what adverse actions are actionable under Title VII, the ADA and other anti-discrimination statutes.
After the Employment Law Clinic agreed to represent Mr. Thomas, and six weeks after the district court’s final decision in Mr. Thomas’s case, the US Supreme Court, on April 17, 2024, issued its opinion in Muldrow v. City of St. Louis , 601 U.S. ___, 144 S. Ct 967 (2024). As the Employment Law Clinic predicted, the Court held that, although an employee must show some harm in order to prevail in a Title VII discrimination suit, an employee does not need to show that the injury satisfies a heightened significance test or was “materially adverse.” In doing so, the Court mentions Seventh Circuit precedent as an example of courts using an incorrect standard for determining what actions constitutes adverse action for purposes of Title VII.
Thus, the primary issue in Thomas is whether the district court erred in dismissing Mr. Thomas’s case in light of the Supreme Court’s opinion in Muldrow.
The case is currently being briefed and an oral argument is expected to take place this fall.
Tyler Sapp served as a full-time Police Officer for the Forest Preserve District of Cook County, Illinois (“Forest Preserves”) from January 5, 2009, until his employment was terminated in January 2019. In 2018, Mr. Sapp went on a leave of absence under the Family and Medical Leave Act so that he could receive treatment for a for bipolar disorder. In July 2018, he was released by his personal doctor to return to work with no restrictions. The Forest Preserves, however, refused to allow him to return to work and required that he undergo an independent medical examination to determine if Mr. Sapp was fit to return to work from his medical leave. Mr. Sapp agreed to do so. The doctor who performed the IME, however, concluded that Ms. Sapp was unfit to return to work as a Forest Preserves Police Officer. Mr. Sapp then requested that the Forest Preserves engage in an interactive process with him to determine if the Forest Preserves could accommodate his condition. The Forest Preserves refused to do so and instead discharged Mr. Sapp.
Mr. Sapp brought a disability-discrimination claim against the Forest Preserves under the Americans with Disabilities Act. He alleged that he is a qualified individual with a disability and that he had been denied the same terms and conditions afforded to his co-workers who were similarly situated. In particular, Mr. Sapp alleged that the Forest Preserves was aware of his disability and failed to reasonably accommodate his disability despite accommodating the disabilities of other Forest Preserves Police Officers.
After the close of discovery, the parties filed cross-motions for summary judgment. The district court issued its Memorandum Opinion and Order granting summary judgment to the Forest Preserves and denying Mr. Sapp’s motion. Mr. Sapp appealed the court’s decision.
On appeal, Mr. Sapp requested that the Employment Law Clinic represent him in his appeal. The Employment law Clinic agreed to do so. The primary issue the Employment Law Clinic planned to address in the appeal was whether the district court erred in granting summary judgment to the Forest Preserves because a reasonable jury could have found that the Forest Preserves’ failure to engage in the interactive process led to a violation of the ADA due to the failure to identify a reasonable accommodation. Instead of engaging with Mr. Sapp to find a solution, the Forest Preserves thwarted discussions by terminating his employment.
Shortly after filing an appearance in the appeal, the matter was set for mediation before the Seventh Circuit’s Mediation Office. After several mediation sessions, the parties were able to reach a settlement in the case and the appeal was dismissed.
In 2012, Wesley Tedrow was hired by Franklin Township School Corporation (“School Corporation”) as a teacher. In November 2019, Mr. Tedrow was preliminarily offered a higher-paying position to teach sixth grade at a different school in Indiana. The School Corporation, however, refused to provide Mr. Tedrow with a reference, despite having provided such references in the past. The School Corporation’s refusal to provide the reference resulted in the other school resulting in the rescinding of its offer.
Mr. Tedrow filed a charge of discrimination with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), alleging that the School Corporation declined to provide him with a reference because his sex and disability.
After Mr. Tedrow filed his initial charge, the School Corporation demanded that Mr. Tedrow submit to an Independent Medical Examination to determine if he was using steroids. The IME was inconclusive. The School Corporation then transferred Mr. Tedrow to different school in the district.
Mr. Tedrow filed a second charge with the EEOC alleging that his transfer was discriminatory and in retaliation for his first charge. The EEOC issued Mr. Tedrow a notice of right to sue and Mr. Tedrow filed suit against the School Corporation alleging discrimination and retaliation in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008.
After discovery was completed, the School Corporation filed a motion for summary judgment on all claims, which was granted by the district court. The court dismissed Mr. Tedrow’s discrimination claims on the basis that: (1) he failed to properly plead his allegation that the School Corporation unlawfully refused to provide him with a reference, and (2) his transfer did not constitute an adverse employment action as required by Title VII because it did not include a reduction in compensation or benefits.
The Employment Law Clinic agreed to represent Mr. Tedrow on appeal because the issue of what constitutes actionable adverse action was an issue that was then pending before the US Supreme Court in in Muldrow v. City of St. Louis , 601 U.S. ___, 144 S. Ct 967 (2024), In addition, several other circuit courts of appeal hard recently issued opinions rejecting their prior precedent on what adverse actions are actionable.
The Employment Law Clinic is often requested to submit amicus briefs in cases in pending before the Illinois Supreme Court, the Illinois Court of Appeals, and appellate courts in other jurisdictions. This year, the Employment Law Clinic was asked to submit an amicus brief concerning the history of the Illinois Wage Payment and Collections Act (“IWPCA”) in Harris v. Vision . The Employment Law Clinic previously submitted a similar brief in Johnson v. Diakon Logistics, 44 F.3d 1048 (7th Cir. 2022).
In Harris , Jeff Harris, a resident of Ohio, worked for Vision Energy, an Ohio company. All of the work Mr. Harris provided to Vision took place in Illinois. In exchange for Mr. Harris’s labor, Vision promised him, among other compensation, a four percent equity interest in a yet-to-be-formed corporation. When Vision failed to pay him the value of the promised equity interest, Mr. Harris filed a complaint against Vision in Ohio to recover that sum under the IWPCA. Vision moved to dismiss Mr. Harris’ IWPCA claim based on a choice-of-law provision in the parties’ contract, which stated that the agreement was to be governed by Ohio law. The court granted Vision’s motion and dismissed the IWPCA claim.
Mr. Harris appealed the court’s dismissal of his IWPCA claim and his counsel requested that the Employment Law Clinic submit a brief explaining the history and strong public policy behind the IWPCA. The Employment Law Clinic agreed to do so and submitted an amicus brief on behalf of Mr. Harris.
In the amicus brief, the Employment Law Clinic argues that the history of the IWPCA and Illinois’s prior wage-theft statutes demonstrates the importance that the Illinois legislature has placed on protecting its workers and the centrality of preventing wage theft to Illinois’s public policy. The amicus brief also demonstrates that Illinois has a materially greater interest than Ohio in the resolution of the dispute because Mr. Harris performed all his work for Vision in Illinois. The lower court’s decision that requires Mr. Harris to bring his wage theft claim against Vision under Ohio’s wage laws, is manifestly repugnant to the fundamental policies of Illinois because Ohio’s wage protection laws would not have provided him with a viable claim or with any remedy for the work he performed solely in Illinois.
Finally, the Employment Law Clinic argued that the choice-of-law provision in the Harris-Vision Agreement did not override the territorial limitations of Ohio’s wage protection statutes, which do not apply extraterritorially to work performed exclusively outside of Ohio. Courts across the country, including Ohio courts, have long recognized that a state’s territorial limitations apply even when that state’s law is selected for application by a choice-of-law provision.
The appeal is pending in the Ohio Court of Appeals.
Written by Staff
September 3, 2024
Divya Bhaskaran, Assistant Professor in the Exercise Science program of the Biology Department, published a research paper in the Frontiers in Neurology Journal. The article titled "Effects of an 11-week vibro-tactile stimulation treatment on voice symptoms in laryngeal dystonia" is a longitudinal clinical trial conducted during Dr Bhaskaran's post-doctoral work at the University of Minnesota.
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Acupuncture is a technique in which practitioners insert fine needles into the skin to treat health problems. The needles may be manipulated manually or stimulated with small electrical currents (electroacupuncture). Acupuncture has been in use in some form for at least 2,500 years. It originated from traditional Chinese medicine but has gained popularity worldwide since the 1970s.
According to the World Health Organization, acupuncture is used in 103 of 129 countries that reported data.
In the United States, data from the National Health Interview Survey show that the use of acupuncture by U.S. adults more than doubled between 2002 and 2022. In 2002, 1.0 percent of U.S. adults used acupuncture; in 2022, 2.2 percent used it.
National survey data indicate that in the United States, acupuncture is most commonly used for pain, such as back, joint, or neck pain.
How acupuncture works is not fully understood. However, there’s evidence that acupuncture may have effects on the nervous system, effects on other body tissues, and nonspecific (placebo) effects.
Research has shown that acupuncture may be helpful for several pain conditions, including back or neck pain, knee pain associated with osteoarthritis, and postoperative pain. It may also help relieve joint pain associated with the use of aromatase inhibitors, which are drugs used in people with breast cancer.
An analysis of data from 20 studies (6,376 participants) of people with painful conditions (back pain, osteoarthritis, neck pain, or headaches) showed that the beneficial effects of acupuncture continued for a year after the end of treatment for all conditions except neck pain.
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on low-back pain .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on osteoarthritis .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on headache .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on irritable bowel syndrome .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on fibromyalgia .
In addition to pain conditions, acupuncture has also been studied for at least 50 other health problems. There is evidence that acupuncture may help relieve seasonal allergy symptoms, stress incontinence in women, and nausea and vomiting associated with cancer treatment. It may also help relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life in people with asthma, but it has not been shown to improve lung function.
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on seasonal allergies .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on cancer .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on asthma .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on depression .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on quitting smoking .
For more information, see the NCCIH webpage on menopause .
NCCIH funds research to evaluate acupuncture’s effectiveness for various kinds of pain and other conditions and to further understand how the body responds to acupuncture and how acupuncture might work. Some recent NCCIH-supported studies involve:
Nccih clearinghouse.
The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.
Toll-free in the U.S.: 1-888-644-6226
Telecommunications relay service (TRS): 7-1-1
Website: https://www.nccih.nih.gov
Email: [email protected] (link sends email)
NCCIH and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) provide tools to help you understand the basics and terminology of scientific research so you can make well-informed decisions about your health. Know the Science features a variety of materials, including interactive modules, quizzes, and videos, as well as links to informative content from Federal resources designed to help consumers make sense of health information.
Explaining How Research Works (NIH)
Know the Science: How To Make Sense of a Scientific Journal Article
Understanding Clinical Studies (NIH)
A service of the National Library of Medicine, PubMed® contains publication information and (in most cases) brief summaries of articles from scientific and medical journals. For guidance from NCCIH on using PubMed, see How To Find Information About Complementary Health Approaches on PubMed .
Website: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has created a website, NIH Clinical Research Trials and You, to help people learn about clinical trials, why they matter, and how to participate. The site includes questions and answers about clinical trials, guidance on how to find clinical trials through ClinicalTrials.gov and other resources, and stories about the personal experiences of clinical trial participants. Clinical trials are necessary to find better ways to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases.
Website: https://www.nih.gov/health-information/nih-clinical-research-trials-you
RePORTER is a database of information on federally funded scientific and medical research projects being conducted at research institutions.
Website: https://reporter.nih.gov
NCCIH thanks Pete Murray, Ph.D., David Shurtleff, Ph.D., and Helene M. Langevin, M.D., NCCIH for their review of the 2022 update of this fact sheet.
This publication is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. Duplication is encouraged.
NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.
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Credentialing, Licensing, and Education
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Medical scientists often begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions or in medical residency. During their postdoctoral appointments, they work with experienced scientists as they continue to learn about their specialties or develop a broader understanding of related areas of research.
The work environment of healthcare professionals is important for good patient care and is receiving increasing attention in scientific research. A clear and unambiguous understanding of a positive work environment, as perceived by healthcare professionals, ...
Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.
Discover what a medical researcher is and does, and the education requirements, job outlook and salary and work environment information for medical researchers.
Explore 14 different types of medical scientists, from lab techs to neuroscientists, and review their salary information to determine which role is best for you.
What does a clinical scientist do? Clinical scientists work with other healthcare professionals to research and develop new treatments, equipment and technology to treat patients.
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Clinical scientists aid the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness. The job title is applicable to an extensive range of roles that are grouped into four domains - clinical bioinformatics, life sciences, physical sciences and clinical engineering, and physiological sciences - and subdivided into specialisms.1 Clinical scientists may work exclusively in laboratories or in direct ...
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Medical lab scientists work in hospitals, clinics, forensic or public health laboratories, as well as pharmaceutical industries, biotechnology companies, veterinary clinics, or research institutions.
Depending on their interest and field of study, medical scientists often devote approximately 4 to 5 days of their work week to performing research in laboratories. An integral part of this includes writing research grants, conducting lab meetings, and performing meticulous analysis of experimental data, and they often employ statistical methods to decipher complex health-related phenomena.
Medical scientists work anywhere in the healthcare industry research is happening—though a few industries tend to employ the majority of professionals in the field.
Medical scientists work for colleges, universities, companies involved in research, and healthcare facilities. Often, they work full-time following the standard working hours.
Becoming a clinical scientist can allow you to work in a laboratory setting in the medical industry. Clinical scientists fulfill many functions in a clinical environment using various scientific and medical skills. Understanding these skills and basic credentials can help you plan your career path and understand how to enter this industry.
Introduction The work environment of healthcare professionals is important for good patient care and is receiving increasing attention in scientific research. A clear and unambiguous understanding of a positive work environment, as perceived by healthcare professionals, is crucial for gaining systematic objective insights into the work environment. The aim of this study was to gain consensus ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed healthcare personnel's working environment and sense of security. Medical laboratory scientists were also faced with new occupational challenges. They were tasked with performing novel tests for SARS-CoV-2 ...
Learn about what does a medical researcher do and discover how to become a medical scientist, their salary, work environment, skills and potential employers.
Research Collaborations (RC) is a centralized core unit within In vivo Science & Technology (IST), Comparative Medicine (CM). RC is responsible for performing best-in-class in-vivo studies together with developing key animal models and cutting-edge technologies needed for Biomedical Research (BR) drug discovery and development process.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021;18(6):2882. Katz DL, Karlsen MC, Chung M, et al. Hierarchies of evidence applied to lifestyle medicine (HEALM): introduction of a strength-of-evidence approach based on a methodological systematic review. BMC Medical Research Methodology. 2019;19(1):178.
During the past academic year, the Employment Law Clinic has continued its work helping pro se plaintiffs in employment discrimination cases in federal court. This work includes representing pro se plaintiffs as their Settlement Assistance Counsel in individual discrimination cases and representing pro se plaintiffs in their appeals to the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals. In addition, the ...
Divya Bhaskaran, Assistant Professor in the Exercise Science program of the Biology Department, published a research paper in the Frontiers in Neurology Journal. The article titled "Effects of an 11-week vibro-tactile stimulation treatment on voice symptoms in laryngeal dystonia" is a longitudinal clinical trial conducted during Dr Bhaskaran's post-doctoral work at the University of Minnesota.
NCCIH funds research to evaluate acupuncture's effectiveness for various kinds of pain and other conditions and to further understand how the body responds to acupuncture and how acupuncture might work. Some recent NCCIH-supported studies involve: Evaluating the feasibility of using acupuncture in hospital emergency departments.