Andrology
45.0
Audiology
8.0
Cancer Genomics
46.0
Cardiac Science
15.5
Clinical Biochemistry
29.8
Clinical Bioinformatics (Genomics)
15.0
Clinical Bioinformatics (Health Informatics)
15.0
Clinical Bioinformatics (Physical Sciences)
6.5
Clinical Engineering
16.7
Clinical Immunology
79.0
Clinical Pharmaceutical Science
21.2
Critical Care Science
0.0
Gastrointestinal Physiology
13.3
Genomic Counselling
29.0
Genomics
40.0
Haematology and Transfusion Science
33.1
Histocompatibility and Immunogenetics
17.8
Histopathology
0.0
Medical Physics
7.6
Microbiology
105.7
Neurophysiology
29.6
Reproductive Science – Andrology
37.3
Reproductive Science - Embryology
37.3
Respiratory and Sleep Sciences
12.0
Urodynamic Science
0.0
Reconstructive Science
6.1
Table 1: Competition ratios for STP specialisms.
Work-based learning, during the first year of the programme, features an induction, mandatory training, core modules and several rotational placements.5 At university, introductory modules that cover broad topics from the trainee’s chosen theme – life sciences, physiological sciences, physical sciences and clinical engineering or bioinformatics – are completed.
The first set of MSc examinations are taken at the end of the first year. There is greater emphasis on the trainee’s chosen specialism in the second year. The research project is started and there is another set of degree examinations. In the middle of second year, trainees are required to pass the midterm review of progression.
Finally, during the third year, the final MSc examinations are attempted and there is a work-based elective placement. The programme is concluded by the Objective Structured Final Assessment (OSFA).5 Successful completion of the OSFA, eportfolio and master’s degree result in trainees being awarded a Certificate of Completion for the Scientist Training Programme (CCSTP).6 Trainees then apply to the Academy for Healthcare Science (AHCS) for a Certificate of Equivalence or a Certificate of Attainment. Subsequently, they are eligible to apply to the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) for registration as a Clinical Scientist.6
A further programme, termed the Higher Specialist Scientist Training (HSST), has a duration of five years and allows some clinical scientists to progress to consultant level. It results in the attainment of a doctorate degree.
Earnings for NHS jobs are classified by pay scales. Trainee clinical scientists are appointed at band 6, at which the starting salary is £31,365.7 The salary increases in accordance with number of years of experience.
Qualified clinical scientists progress to band 7, at which the starting salary is £38,890.7 This also increases over time to a maximum of £44,503 for eight or more years of service. As further experience and qualifications are obtained, it is possible to apply for positions up to band 9 on the pay scale.
For more information on doctor's salaries within the NHS, please feel free to review The Complete Guide to NHS Pay .
Related Job Sources With BMJ Careers
Other Complete Guides By BMJ Careers
NHS Scientist Training Programme - 2020 recruitment [Internet]. Health Careers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/news/nhs-scientist-training-programme-2020-recruitment
Audiology [Internet]. Health Careers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/physiological-sciences/audiology
Entry requirements [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/applicants/entry-requirements/
Competition ratios for the Scientist Training Programme (STP) Direct Entry [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/applicants/about-the-scientist-training-programme/
Setting the scene [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/trainees/setting-the-scene/
Completion of the Scientist Training Programme [Internet]. National School of Healthcare Science. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://nshcs.hee.nhs.uk/programmes/stp/trainees/completion-of-the-programme/
NHS Terms and Conditions (AfC) pay scales - Annual [Internet]. NHS Employers. [cited 8 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.nhsemployers.org/pay-pensions-and-reward/agenda-for-change/pay-scales/annual
Share this article
Latest articles, my top 6 tips for passing mrcp part 1 and part 2, the ultimate guide to the simulated consultation assessment (sca) for gp trainees.
Starting a career in medical research
If you have the intellectual and emotional resilience, also if you wish to contribute to the body of knowledge in medical sciences then you are a right candidate for a career in Medical Research. Devising and conducting experiments, investigating the epidemiological basis of a disease, working in collaboration with a team, ability to question intricate complexities of genome and proteome and effective written and oral communication skills are the chief qualities of an inborn medical researcher. If the following description sounds like you, then you are probably well suited for a career as a medical researcher.
Qualifications to become a medial researcher
The roadmap to medical researcher is complex because it’s a profession that demands distinctive skills and expertise along with mandatory formal education. The simplest formal degree requirement is minimum Masters or a Ph.D. For an outstanding career as a medical researcher, a Ph.D. will help you to go the distance in an academic career. There is right now an extraordinarily extensive overabundance of post-doctoral partnerships battling for an exceptional set number of lasting scholarly positions. Having said that, accomplishing a PhD in a science subject will stand you in great stead for various research positions. You can pursue a career in medical research by obtaining a formal education in either biological sciences or medicine however; medicine can broaden your options. Furthermore, after earning a formal education in either biology or medicine, the next milestone towards the development of a career in medical research is participating in a research-based internship. In most graduate schools, participating in a research internship and undertaking a research project is the part of the exclusively designed curriculum. This opportunity will allow you to get a chance to be mentored by a physician or research scientist where you can work in collaboration with the team on the ongoing research project.
In order to escalate to the position of the medical researcher, it is integral to complete an advanced degree program in either science or medicine. According to the US Bureau Labor Statistics (BLS), postgraduates and graduates with dual undergraduate degrees become successful candidates for the job positions.
After completing your advanced education, as a medical researcher you can start your aspiring and a challenging career with entry-level positions of medical research associate. As an associate, you are required to assist a scientist in devising, planning and conducting research trials. You can add something extraordinary to your resume by earning credentials offered to research professionals by regulatory bodies. Credential based certifications are not only going to prepare you for some verifiable skills needed in the career but will also aid you in advancing your career path to medical research.
The job role
As a medical researcher, it is your utmost responsibility to conduct research to improve the health status and longevity of the population. The career revolves around clinical investigations to understand human diseases and rigorous lab work. As a medical researcher, formal education will not suffice. As a developing medical researcher, you need to have effective communication, critical thinking, decision-making, data collecting, data analysing and observational skills. These skill sets will enable you to create a competitive edge in the research industry.
Your interest in scientific exploration and a desire to provide a breakthrough in medical knowledge will help you to explore and solve some unknown mysteries associated with complex diseases.
Share this article
Latest articles, what does a clinical physiologist in neurophysiology do.
What does a professional in this career do.
A Medical Research Scientist conducts research with the goal of understanding diseases and improving human health. May study biology and causes of health problems, assess effectiveness of treatments or develop new pharmaceutical products. May direct clinical trials to gather data..
There were 191 Medical Research Scientist job postings in North Carolina in the past year and 7485 in the United States.
In combination with other careers in the Medical Scientist industry, which includes the Medical Research Scientist career, the following graph shows the number of people employed for each year since 2015:
Many new Medical Research Scientist jobs have salaries estimated to be in the following ranges, based on the requirements and responsibilities listed in job postings from the past year.
The average estimated salary in the United States for this career, based on job postings in the past year, is $146,645.
The average estimated salary in North Carolina for this career, based on job postings in the past year, is $132,757.
Percentiles represent the percentage that is lower than the value. For example, 25% of estimated salaries for Medical Research Scientist postings in the United States in the past year were lower than $76,282.
Posted Medical Research Scientist jobs typically require the following level of education. The numbers below are based on job postings in the United States from the past year. Not all job postings list education requirements.
Education Level | Percentage |
---|---|
Associate's Degree | 0% |
Bachelor's Degree | 11.52% |
Master's Degree | 9.19% |
Doctoral Degree | 21.42% |
Other | 4.03% |
Posted Medical Research Scientist jobs typically require the following number of years of experience. The numbers below are based on job postings in the United States from the past year. Not all job postings list experience requirements.
Years of Experience | Percentage |
---|---|
0 to 2 years | 43.23% |
3 to 5 years | 38.11% |
6 to 8 years | 11.43% |
9+ years | 7.23% |
Below are listings of the most common general and specialized skills Medical Research Scientist positions expect applicants to have as well as the most common skills that distinguish individuals from their peers. The percentage of job postings that specifically mention each skill is also listed.
A skill that is required across a broad range of occupations, including this one.
A core skill for this occupation, it occurs frequently in job postings.
A skill that is requested frequently in this occupation but isn’t specific to it.
A skill that may distinguish a subset of the occupation.
A professional who wishes to excel in this career path may consider developing the following highly valued skills. The percentage of job postings that specifically mention each skill is listed.
Sometimes employers post jobs with Medical Research Scientist skills but a different job title. Some common alternative job titles include:
If you are interested in exploring occupations with similar skills, you may want to research the following job titles. Note that we only list occupations that have at least one corresponding NC State Online and Distance Education program.
Here are the employers that have posted the most Medical Research Scientist jobs in the past year along with how many they have posted.
If you are interested in preparing for a career in this field, the following NC State Online and Distance Education programs offer a great place to start!
All wages, job posting statistics, employment trend projections, and information about skill desirability on this page represents historical data and does not guarantee future conditions. Data is provided by and downloaded regularly from Lightcast. For more information about how Lightcast gathers data and what it represents, see Lightcast Data: Basic Overview on Lightcast's Knowledge Base website.
Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.
Medical scientists typically do the following:
Medical scientists form hypotheses and develop experiments. They study the causes of diseases and other health problems in a variety of ways. For example, they may conduct clinical trials, working with licensed physicians to test treatments on patients who have agreed to participate in the study. They analyze data from the trial to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.
Some medical scientists choose to write about and publish their findings in scientific journals after completion of the clinical trial. They also may have to present their findings in ways that nonscientist audiences understand.
Medical scientists often lead teams of technicians or students who perform support tasks. For example, a medical scientist may have assistants take measurements and make observations for the scientist’s research.
Medical scientists usually specialize in an area of research, with the goal of understanding and improving human health outcomes. The following are examples of types of medical scientists:
Clinical pharmacologists research new drug therapies for health problems, such as seizure disorders and Alzheimer’s disease.
Medical pathologists research the human body and tissues, such as how cancer progresses or how certain issues relate to genetics.
Toxicologists study the negative impacts of chemicals and pollutants on human health.
Medical scientists conduct research to better understand disease or to develop breakthroughs in treatment. For information about an occupation that tracks and develops methods to prevent the spread of diseases, see the profile on epidemiologists.
Medical scientists held about 119,200 jobs in 2021. The largest employers of medical scientists were as follows:
Research and development in the physical, engineering, and life sciences | 36% |
Colleges, universities, and professional schools; state, local, and private | 23 |
Hospitals; state, local, and private | 17 |
Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing | 4 |
Offices of physicians | 1 |
Medical scientists typically work in offices and laboratories. In the lab, they sometimes work with dangerous biological samples and chemicals. They must take precautions in the lab to ensure safety, such as by wearing protective gloves, knowing the location of safety equipment, and keeping work areas neat.
Most medical scientists work full time, and some work more than 40 hours per week.
Medical scientists typically have a Ph.D., usually in biology or a related life science. Some get a medical degree instead of, or in addition to, a Ph.D.
Medical scientists typically need a Ph.D. or medical degree. Candidates sometimes qualify for positions with a master’s degree and experience. Applicants to master’s or doctoral programs typically have a bachelor's degree in biology or a related physical science field, such as chemistry.
Ph.D. programs for medical scientists typically focus on research in a particular field, such as immunology, neurology, or cancer. Through laboratory work, Ph.D. students develop experiments related to their research.
Medical degree programs include Medical Doctor (M.D.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), and advanced nursing degrees. In medical school, students usually spend the first phase of their education in labs and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, and medical ethics. During their second phase, medical students typically participate in residency programs.
Some medical scientist training programs offer dual degrees that pair a Ph.D. with a medical degree. Students in dual-degree programs learn both the research skills needed to be a scientist and the clinical skills needed to be a healthcare practitioner.
Medical scientists primarily conduct research and typically do not need licenses or certifications. However, those who practice medicine, such as by treating patients in clinical trials or in private practice, must be licensed as physicians or other healthcare practitioners.
Medical scientists with a Ph.D. may begin their careers in postdoctoral research positions; those with a medical degree often complete a residency. During postdoctoral appointments, Ph.D.s work with experienced scientists to learn more about their specialty area and improve their research skills. Medical school graduates who enter a residency program in their specialty generally spend several years working in a hospital or doctor’s office.
Medical scientists typically have an interest in the Building, Thinking and Creating interest areas, according to the Holland Code framework. The Building interest area indicates a focus on working with tools and machines, and making or fixing practical things. The Thinking interest area indicates a focus on researching, investigating, and increasing the understanding of natural laws. The Creating interest area indicates a focus on being original and imaginative, and working with artistic media.
If you are not sure whether you have a Building or Thinking or Creating interest which might fit with a career as a medical scientist, you can take a career test to measure your interests.
Medical scientists should also possess the following specific qualities:
Communication skills. Communication is critical, because medical scientists must be able to explain their conclusions. In addition, medical scientists write grant proposals, which are often required to continue their research.
Critical-thinking skills. Medical scientists must use their expertise to determine the best method for solving a specific research question.
Data-analysis skills. Medical scientists use statistical techniques, so that they can properly quantify and analyze health research questions.
Decision-making skills. Medical scientists must use their expertise and experience to determine what research questions to ask, how best to investigate the questions, and what data will best answer the questions.
Observation skills. Medical scientists conduct experiments that require precise observation of samples and other health data. Any mistake could lead to inconclusive or misleading results.
The median annual wage for medical scientists was $95,310 in May 2021. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $50,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $166,980.
In May 2021, the median annual wages for medical scientists in the top industries in which they worked were as follows:
Research and development in the physical, engineering, and life sciences | $102,210 |
Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing | 99,830 |
Hospitals; state, local, and private | 79,800 |
Offices of physicians | 79,760 |
Colleges, universities, and professional schools; state, local, and private | 62,560 |
Employment of medical scientists is projected to grow 17 percent from 2021 to 2031, much faster than the average for all occupations.
About 10,000 openings for medical scientists are projected each year, on average, over the decade. Many of those openings are expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to different occupations or exit the labor force, such as to retire.
Demand for medical scientists will stem from greater demand for a variety of healthcare services as the population continues to age and rates of chronic disease continue to increase. These scientists will be needed for research into treating diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and cancer, and problems related to treatment, such as resistance to antibiotics. In addition, medical scientists will continue to be needed for medical research as a growing population travels globally and facilitates the spread of diseases.
The availability of federal funds for medical research grants also may affect opportunities for these scientists.
For more information about research specialties and opportunities within specialized fields for medical scientists, visit
American Association for Cancer Research
American Physician Scientists Association
American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
The American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science
American Society for Clinical Pathology
American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
The Gerontological Society of America
Infectious Diseases Society of America
National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Society for Neuroscience
Society of Toxicology
Where does this information come from?
The career information above is taken from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook . This excellent resource for occupational data is published by the U.S. Department of Labor every two years. Truity periodically updates our site with information from the BLS database.
I would like to cite this page for a report. Who is the author?
There is no published author for this page. Please use citation guidelines for webpages without an author available.
I think I have found an error or inaccurate information on this page. Who should I contact?
This information is taken directly from the Occupational Outlook Handbook published by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Truity does not editorialize the information, including changing information that our readers believe is inaccurate, because we consider the BLS to be the authority on occupational information. However, if you would like to correct a typo or other technical error, you can reach us at [email protected] .
I am not sure if this career is right for me. How can I decide?
There are many excellent tools available that will allow you to measure your interests, profile your personality, and match these traits with appropriate careers. On this site, you can take the Career Personality Profiler assessment, the Holland Code assessment, or the Photo Career Quiz .
You might be using an unsupported or outdated browser. To get the best possible experience please use the latest version of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, or Microsoft Edge to view this website. |
Updated: Feb 29, 2024, 1:40pm
Research is at the center of everything we know and discover, whether it’s food science, engineering, wildlife or the climate. Behind these discoveries, a research scientist conducts experiments, collects data, and shares their findings with the world.
Research and development scientist, or R&D scientist, is a broad career term that encompasses numerous types of scientists, from geologists to historians. Still, every research scientist has the same goal of furthering their field through experimentation and data analysis.
Browse this guide to discover how to become a research scientist and learn about this role, responsibilities and career outlook.
Forbes Advisor’s education editors are committed to producing unbiased rankings and informative articles covering online colleges, tech bootcamps and career paths. Our ranking methodologies use data from the National Center for Education Statistics , education providers, and reputable educational and professional organizations. An advisory board of educators and other subject matter experts reviews and verifies our content to bring you trustworthy, up-to-date information. Advertisers do not influence our rankings or editorial content.
Research scientists design and conduct research projects and experiments to collect and interpret relevant data. Many research scientists work in laboratory settings for universities, private businesses or government agencies.
These professionals are key players in many industries, from healthcare to marine biology . For instance, a chemist may test various materials for future upgrades to a medical device, while a wildlife research scientist might conduct long-term studies on a species’s breeding patterns.
The typical duties of a research scientist, regardless of their industry and position, include:
Research scientists may face challenges throughout their careers, like securing research funding or staying updated with policy changes and technologies. Additionally, to become involved in high-level research projects, research scientists usually need a doctoral degree, requiring substantial time and financial commitment.
The path to becoming a research scientist depends on your desired type of work.
For example, if you plan to become a research scientist for a hospital’s oncology department, you’ll likely need a doctoral degree and postdoctoral research experience. However, a product development researcher may only need a bachelor’s or master’s degree.
The following steps outline the general path needed for many research scientist positions.
Research scientists can start by pursuing a bachelor’s degree in a field relevant to the research they want to conduct. For instance, an undergraduate degree in natural resources is helpful to become a wildlife biologist, while a prospective forensic scientist can pursue a degree in forensics.
If you’re undecided about your post-graduate goals, you can pursue a general major like chemistry, biology or physics before choosing a more field-specific master’s or doctoral degree.
Many higher-level research jobs require a master’s degree in a relevant field. Pursuing a master’s degree lets you gain work experience before beginning a doctorate, sets you apart from other doctoral candidates and qualifies you for advanced research positions.
However, you can skip a master’s degree and enter a doctoral program. Many doctoral programs only require a bachelor’s degree for admission, so you could save time and money by choosing that route rather than earning a master’s.
Doctorates require students to hone their research skills while mastering their field of interest, making these degrees the gold standard for research scientists.
A doctorate can take four to six years to complete. Research scientists should opt for the most relevant doctorate for their career path, like clinical research, bioscience or developmental science.
Some jobs for research scientists require candidates to have experience in their field, making a research fellowship beneficial. In a research fellowship, students execute research projects under the mentorship of an industry expert, often a researcher within the student’s college or university.
Students can sometimes complete a fellowship while pursuing their doctoral degree, but other fellowships are only available to doctoral graduates.
Payscale reports the average research scientist earns about $87,800 per year as of February 2024. However, research scientist salaries can vary significantly depending on the field and the scientist’s experience level.
For example, Payscale reports that entry-level research scientists earn about $84,000 annually, but those with 20 or more years of experience average approximately $106,000 as of February 2024.
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports salary data for several types of research scientist careers. For example, a geoscientist earns a median wage of about $87,000, while the median wage of a physicist is around $139,000 as of May 2022.
As salaries vary based on research science positions, so does demand. To illustrate, the BLS projects the need for chemists and materials scientists to grow by 6% from 2022 to 2032 but projects medical scientist jobs to increase by 10% in the same timeframe. Both projections demonstrate above-average career growth, however.
A research scientist can work in many industries, so it’s crucial to understand your options before beginning your studies. Pinpointing a few areas of interest can help you find the right educational path for your future career.
Research scientists can specialize in life, physical or earth sciences.
Life science researchers like botanists, biologists and geneticists study living things and their environments. Physical research scientists, like chemists and physicists, explore non-living things and their interactions with an environment. Earth science researchers like meteorologists and geologists study Earth and its features.
What degree does a research scientist need.
Research scientist education requirements vary by specialization, but entry-level research positions require at least a bachelor’s degree in a relevant field. Some employers prefer a master’s or doctoral degree, as advanced degrees demonstrate specialized knowledge and research experience.
Research scientists need at least a bachelor’s degree. Many graduates pursue a master’s or doctoral degree while gaining experience with an entry-level position, internship or fellowship.
Research scientist careers generally pay well; some specializations pay more than others. For example, the BLS reports a median salary of about $67,000 for zoologists and wildlife biologists as of May 2022, but physicists and astronomers earn just over $139,000 annually.
It can take up to 10 years to become a doctorate-prepared research scientist, plus another one to five years to complete a postdoctoral fellowship. Entry-level research scientist roles may only require a four-year bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree, which takes one to two years.
No, not all research scientists need a Ph.D. Entry-level roles like forensic scientist technicians may only need a bachelor’s degree, and sociologists and economists usually need a master’s. Some research scientist roles, like physicists and medical scientists, require a doctoral degree.
As a self-proclaimed lifelong learner and former educator, Amy Boyington is passionate about researching and advocating for learners of all ages. For over a decade, Amy has specialized in writing parenting and higher education content that simplifies the process of comparing schools, programs and tuition rates for prospective students and their families. Her work has been featured on several online publications, including Online MBA, Reader’s Digest and BestColleges.
So you want to be a medical scientist. An MD isn’t enough to make your parents proud, so why not toss in a PhD as well? With your MD/PhD, you’ll be making groundbreaking medical discoveries each day you go to work. Well, not quite. This is the reality of being a medical scientist.
Welcome to our next installment in So You Want to Be. In this series, we highlight a specific medical career path to help you decide if it’s a good fit for you. You can find the other specialties on our So You Want To Be blog category or YouTube playlist .
A medical scientist or physician scientist isn’t a distinct specialty of medicine but rather a career path you choose to take.
Medical scientists might hold a PhD, an MD, or both. These are notable distinctions because a PhD will not have gone to medical school, whereas earning an MD or MD/PhD requires four years of medical school. That’s why some medical scientists with an MD prefer to be referred to as physician scientists.
For the purposes of this guide, we’ll be focusing on the MD path, but much of the pros and cons and day-to-day will also apply to anyone interested in becoming a PhD medical scientist without an MD.
A medical scientist is dedicated to conducting research that enhances our understanding of human health and diseases. They focus on exploring the causes and progressions of various health conditions, aiming to develop effective treatments and preventive measures.
Depending on their interest and field of study, medical scientists often devote approximately 4 to 5 days of their work week to performing research in laboratories. An integral part of this includes writing research grants, conducting lab meetings, and performing meticulous analysis of experimental data, and they often employ statistical methods to decipher complex health-related phenomena.
Medical scientists can also be actively involved in conducting clinical trials. These trials are critical for testing the safety and efficacy of new treatments, drugs, or medical devices on human subjects. Collaboration is a cornerstone of their work, as they frequently team up with doctors, other scientists, and statisticians. This multidisciplinary approach is essential due to the multifaceted nature of medical research.
After testing a hypothesis, medical scientists publish their findings in scientific journals and share their discoveries with both the medical community and, at times, the broader public. This dissemination of knowledge can significantly influence healthcare practices and policy-making.
Medical scientists can have a profound impact on healthcare, which can be incredibly rewarding. Their contributions are vital for the development of new medical treatments and diagnostics, ultimately leading to enhanced patient care and health outcomes.
Medical scientists can practice in a wide variety of different settings.
Academic settings are the most common workplace.
Universities and medical schools offer an environment conducive to both research and teaching, given that there are interested students, faculty, and many technicians and other research personnel. In these settings, physician scientists often conduct research, teach medical students and residents, and sometimes practice clinically.
Academic institutions provide support to tackle research projects, including obtaining funding and the facilities for shared lab equipment. Most academic settings also have the benefit of being associated with large hospitals and medical centers.
Independent research institutes, which often focus on specific diseases or types of research, are another common workplace. These institutes may have affiliations with academic centers, but they function primarily as dedicated research facilities. Physician scientists in this setting can focus intensively on research, often with greater resources and specialized equipment.
Some physician scientists work in the industry, particularly with companies that focus on developing new medications or medical technologies. Their clinical expertise is required to develop new treatments, understand patient needs, and conduct clinical trials.
Government agencies like the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, and the Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, employ physician scientists in various capacities. They can work on public health research, policy development, and administration of research programs. Their medical expertise helps to shape health policies and research agendas at the national level.
Some physician scientists work with nonprofits and foundations that focus on health research and policy. These roles can involve research, advocacy, and the development of programs to improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
Although less common, some physician scientists may be involved in private practice, either in clinical work, consultancy, or in combination with research activities. These roles often require balancing clinical duties with research interests.
Let’s clear up some of the misconceptions about working as a medical scientist.
A common misconception is that medical research frequently leads to immediate, groundbreaking discoveries. In reality, the process is often slow and meticulous.
Significant breakthroughs are relatively rare and are usually the result of many years of sustained research. The journey involves numerous incremental advancements as opposed to dramatic new findings.
The career path for medical scientists isn’t always straightforward and can be quite varied. Individuals in this field may find themselves transitioning between different sectors, such as academia, industry, and government roles. There isn’t a one-size-fits-all career trajectory in medical science, and success often requires flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances and opportunities.
Another misconception is that medical scientists exclusively work in labs. In reality, their work is multifaceted, encompassing not only laboratory research but also data analysis, writing research papers and grant applications, and presenting findings at conferences. This variety in tasks ensures that the role is diverse and not confined to a single setting.
Lastly, many people believe there are limited job opportunities for medical scientists. The field is broad, offering diverse career opportunities in academia, the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, government agencies, and healthcare organizations. The job opportunities are so varied because the skill set of a medical scientist, and their ability to communicate with other scientific parties, is valued across multiple sectors.
Becoming a physician scientist with an MD/PhD involves a rigorous and lengthy educational process that’s designed to train individuals who are interested in both practicing medicine and conducting biomedical research.
The journey is largely split into two branches: pursuing each degree independently or enrolling in an MD/PhD program or integrated Medical Scientist Training Program, MSTP.
With a sequential approach, you first must complete a Doctor of Medicine (MD) program and then enroll in a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program, or vice versa. This path is less common due to the extended time commitment and the requirement of two different and unique applications—one for MD and another for the PhD program. MD graduates may choose to pursue their PhD during or after residency.
An MD program typically takes 4 years and is focused on clinical training, preparing students for a career in medicine. This is the same path anyone who wants to become an MD will begin with, no matter the specialty.
A PhD program with a research focus usually takes 4-6 years and requires a dissertation based on original research.
Independently pursuing an MD and PhD usually takes longer than completing a joint program or MSTP. The time to complete both programs can range from 8-12 years, depending on a student’s pace and the nature of their PhD research.
This route offers flexibility in timing and choice of programs but can be more challenging due to the lack of a structured pathway. Many courses will likely be repeated, and unlike the opportunities available to those enrolled in an MSTP, there’s no tuition reimbursement.
Medical Scientist Training Programs are dual-degree programs designed to integrate medical and graduate education.
Training occurs simultaneously in medicine and research, as pursuing degrees independently can sometimes result in a disconnect between the two fields. There are around 50 MSTPs located across the US.
The MSTP distinction means the NIH provides governmental funds to support the program, including tuition coverage and a graduate stipend every year, making MSTPs more financially appealing. There are also MD/PhD programs that are not MSTP, but their funding depends on the internal program and institution itself, not the government. Because of this, non-MSTP programs tend to be smaller in size.
There are appropriate standards across MSTP institutions, such as annual retreats, a formalized curriculum, and seminars to aid in transitions. The structured curriculum smoothly transitions students between medical training and research~~, with research rotations completed during the summers in between medical school semesters~~.
An MSTP is typically 7 to 8 years in length and involves two phases: Pre-clinical and clinical, and these phases are interspersed with PhD research.
Because of the limited spots available, guaranteed stipends, and the fact the programs are often located at more prestigious schools, admission to MSTPs is highly competitive.
Each year, there are approximately 700 MD/PhD matriculants across the nation. Students must not only have satisfied requirements for medical school entry, which includes extracurriculars as well as a high MCAT and GPA, but also have actively participated in several research projects or experiences. Lately, competitive applicants commonly have at least one publication. Unfortunately, because of NIH governmental funding, MSTPs do not accept international or non-US trainees.
What about subspecialization?
Most MD/PhD graduates choose to pursue residency and fellowship training, which will take another 3-7 years minimum. Their dual degree, research prowess, and extensive training it takes to complete an MD/PhD makes them particularly attractive to residency programs.
While MD/PhD graduates can enter any medical specialty, some fields are more common due to the presence of integrated research pathways, funding availability, and research prevalence in the specialty.
Internal medicine, pediatrics, pathology, neurology, psychiatry, radiology, and radiation oncology are common residency paths. Given how long the MD/PhD training already is, students interested in longer residencies and fellowships must acknowledge the delayed income, level of work ethic, and perseverance required to complete this 1- to 2-decade journey.
There’s a lot to love about working as a medical scientist.
People who love working as a medical scientist cite the dynamic and intellectually stimulating nature of their work as a major draw. The field offers a unique blend of clinical practice and research, allowing individuals to directly impact patient care while also contributing to the broader understanding of medical science.
The variety in day-to-day activities is a significant appeal. One day might involve seeing patients and addressing their immediate health concerns, while the next could be dedicated to laboratory research or analyzing data to uncover new insights into disease mechanisms.
Medical scientists also encounter diverse patient populations, providing a rich and rewarding clinical experience. The “bread and butter” of work ranges from routine patient examinations to conducting groundbreaking research, which means no two days are alike.
Additionally, the lifestyle of a medical scientist is flexible, with the ability to balance clinical duties with research pursuits. This balance makes for a career that is not only professionally fulfilling but also accommodating of personal interests and commitments. The sense of contribution to both immediate patient health and the advancement of medical knowledge is a powerful motivator and source of satisfaction and fulfillment for those in this field.
While the career of a medical scientist has a lot to offer, it’s a long journey to get there, which isn’t for everyone.
The most notable downside to this career path is the extra training involved, which delays your ability to earn an attending salary even further. While many MD/PhD programs offer stipends and tuition waivers, the extended years in training equates to delayed entry into the full-time workforce.
The field requires extensive education and training, and the early years, particularly in academic or research settings, may not be as financially rewarding as other professions requiring similar levels of education. However, it can be a financially stable and rewarding career over the long term.
Though rewarding when breakthroughs are made, these don’t happen every day—far from it. Research can seem exciting and even sexy from the outside, but it’s often a slow and frustrating process; some experiments may require years to see results, whereas others may never yield the expected results. This can be disheartening, especially for those who are results-oriented.
That’s why it’s so important for premeds to get exposure to various types of research before they dedicate their education and future careers to it. Some types of research may be more appealing than others, and you could write it off entirely after one bad experience before figuring out what you like.
Additionally, the dual demands of clinical practice and research can lead to a busy lifestyle. Balancing patient care with the rigors of scientific investigation means long hours, which often impact work-life balance and job satisfaction.
Lastly, securing funding for research is a constant challenge. The competitive nature of grant applications and the reliance on external funding sources can create uncertainty and affect the scope and direction of research. And different areas of research see different spikes and drops in popularity, given public perception and government funding priorities. What’s most important or most interesting to you isn’t always what’s most funded.
For those in academic settings, there’s often pressure to publish regularly, contribute to teaching, and maintain a reputation in the scientific community, which can be demanding alongside clinical responsibilities. These activities are not reimbursed yet are frequently seen as necessary.
So, should you become a medical scientist?
Medical scientists get to help shape healthcare delivery and treatment. Those who are naturally curious, enjoy solving complex problems, and are constantly seeking new knowledge tend to do well in this field. Enjoying teamwork and collaboration is also important, as medical scientists often work with other researchers, clinicians, and healthcare professionals. If you have a genuine interest in understanding disease mechanisms and a drive to improve patient care, this may be an ideal path for you.
However, the path to becoming a medical scientist is long and can be filled with challenges, including research setbacks and the pressures of medical training. The field of research can also be unpredictable and full of unknowns. Comfort with ambiguity and a flexible mindset are crucial.
Patience and resilience are also incredibly vital and relevant traits to possess. It’s easy to become discouraged while conducting research. Medical scientists must be able to push through the failed experiments, rejections from grant approvals, long periods of monotony, as well as periods of great challenge. Earning an MD already requires significant levels of dedication and perseverance. An MD/PhD takes this to a whole new level, not only because the training is longer, but also because the day-to-day requires more patience than regular MD work. Research is no cakewalk.
If you’re considering becoming a medical scientist, seek out mentors and experiences in both research and clinical settings to better understand the nature of the work and whether or not it aligns with your interests. Engaging in longitudinal research projects can provide valuable insights and help you make an informed decision.
If you’re considering a career as a medical scientist or in medicine as a whole, elevating your research skillset and becoming prolific in research will open doors for you. Our all-new Ultimate Research Course is packed with dozens of videos, resources, and exclusive private community access to elevate your research game to the highest level. Learn from the Med School Insiders experts on our tested and proven tactics to publish dozens and dozens of publications to wow admissions committees and make your application stand out. Whether you’re applying to MD/PhD programs or MD programs, we’re confident you are going to find tremendous value. So much so, it comes with a money back guarantee so that there’s no risk to you.
Med School Insiders has helped thousands of premeds and medical students design and achieve their ideal career paths and we’d love to be a part of your journey to becoming a future physician.
Special thanks to physician scientist Dr. Albert Zhou for helping us create this So You Want to Be entry.
It’s never too early to begin thinking about the specialty you want to pursue. If you’re struggling to choose the best path for you, our So You Want to Be playlist is a great place to start.
So you want to be an oncologist. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and give it to you straight. This is the reality of oncology.
So you want to be a pediatric neurologist. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and give it to you straight. This is the reality of pediatric neurology.
So you want to be an allergist/immunologist—working all day in an outpatient clinic taking care of runny noses. Let’s debunk the public perception myths and
Receive regular exclusive MSI content, news, and updates! No spam. One-click unsubscribe.
Customer Note Premed Preclinical Med Student Clinical Med Student
Physician-scientists are physicians (MDs or DOs with or without additional degrees) who devote regular components of their professional effort seeking new knowledge about health, disease, or delivery of patient care through research. While all physicians receive training in medical science, physician-scientists are those who are trained to conduct independent scientific investigation in the laboratory, clinic, or other setting. A physician scientist’s in-depth clinical knowledge of human health and disease, combined with skills in scientific investigation and analysis, make her uniquely resourceful. Physician-scientists are well prepared to detect new threats to human health; develop potential new therapies, treatments, or means of prevention; communicate knowledgeably across disciplines and to lead scientific teams or organizations; and, guide important policy decisions, such as in drug approval.
Historically, physicians were pioneers in medical science, and often relying on only informal scientific training coupled to their intellectual insight and curiosity. Today, however, most physician-scientists complete formal, usually intensive scientific training in addition to their medical education. There are vibrant examples of physician-scientist training programs that accommodate students entering science at different stages of their medical training or early career. At the same time, the knowledge and skills required for medical education and clinical specialization have also increased for all physicians. Beginning in the 1970s, prominent medical leaders publicly raised the question of whether any individuals could continue to master the growing complexities of both medicine and science, while being adequately sustained by medical institutions and health systems that were also changing. They raised such concerns not to sell their profession short, but to call for added attention and resources to the needs of students and early career physician-scientists. Those calls continue to this day, as the National of Institutes of Health finds that the number of younger physician scientists applying for research support is decreasing, and that the average age of these investigators, including first-time applicants, is increasing.
For those that become academic medical faculty, physician-scientists often teach, perform research, and provide clinical service, and embody in each individual the several missions of the academic medical center. The types of science” that physicians engage in has also broadened, from laboratory and clinical investigation, noted above, to research on health services and implementation, population health, community engagement, and health equity (we also expect a growing need for physicians with expert training in emerging data sciences). The AAMC is committed to the nurturing and growth of new physician-scientists.
The AAMC has convened an expert Committee to develop recommendations for medical schools and teaching hospitals to more comprehensively nurture physician-scientists across the continuum of training and early career development. For more information, visit the Committee Roster (PDF) and the Committee Charge (PDF) .
A National Institutes of Health working group recently concluded—confirming decades of earlier concerns—that the nation is failing to adequately renew and advance the physician-scientist workforce, as too few young physicians are attracted into scientific research or – if attracted—find necessary support or guidance lacking at key stages of their professional development. Several AAMC member institutions have begun to create physician-scientists “homes”, which integrate the support for new physician-scientists across career stages and departments. Such homes may be formal programs, networks, or other communities that support the training and development of individuals pursuing physician-scientist careers. The AAMC Committee will focus on constructive, systemic solutions for medical schools and teaching hospitals to ensure needed support.
In all its deliberations, the Committee embraces the variety of physician-scientist careers, from laboratory-based investigation to research in clinics, health systems, and communities, as well as the multiple training pathways, from integrated dual-degree programs to accumulated, distinct educational experiences, through which individuals attain these careers.
A report from the AAMC's Group on Graduate Research, Education, and Training (GREAT) that tracks the careers of MD-PhD dual-degree program graduates over 50 years (1964–2014) and highlights results of a research project that explored their career paths.
An NIH Advisory Committee to the Director Working Group on the Physician-Scientist Workforce issued a report with “recommendations for actions that NIH should take to support a sustainable and diverse clinical research infrastructure, as well as recommendations for actions needed by other relevant stakeholders.”
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
Bernd röhrig.
1 MDK Rheinland-Pfalz, Referat Rehabilitation/Biometrie, Alzey
2 Zentrum für Präventive Pädiatrie, Zentrum für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin, Mainz
3 Interdisziplinäres Zentrum Klinische Studien (IZKS), Fachbereich Medizin der Universität Mainz
4 Institut für Medizinische Biometrie, Epidemiologie und Informatik (IMBEI), Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz
The choice of study type is an important aspect of the design of medical studies. The study design and consequent study type are major determinants of a study’s scientific quality and clinical value.
This article describes the structured classification of studies into two types, primary and secondary, as well as a further subclassification of studies of primary type. This is done on the basis of a selective literature search concerning study types in medical research, in addition to the authors’ own experience.
Three main areas of medical research can be distinguished by study type: basic (experimental), clinical, and epidemiological research. Furthermore, clinical and epidemiological studies can be further subclassified as either interventional or noninterventional.
The study type that can best answer the particular research question at hand must be determined not only on a purely scientific basis, but also in view of the available financial resources, staffing, and practical feasibility (organization, medical prerequisites, number of patients, etc.).
The quality, reliability and possibility of publishing a study are decisively influenced by the selection of a proper study design. The study type is a component of the study design (see the article "Study Design in Medical Research") and must be specified before the study starts. The study type is determined by the question to be answered and decides how useful a scientific study is and how well it can be interpreted. If the wrong study type has been selected, this cannot be rectified once the study has started.
After an earlier publication dealing with aspects of study design, the present article deals with study types in primary and secondary research. The article focuses on study types in primary research. A special article will be devoted to study types in secondary research, such as meta-analyses and reviews. This article covers the classification of individual study types. The conception, implementation, advantages, disadvantages and possibilities of using the different study types are illustrated by examples. The article is based on a selective literature research on study types in medical research, as well as the authors’ own experience.
In principle, medical research is classified into primary and secondary research. While secondary research summarizes available studies in the form of reviews and meta-analyses, the actual studies are performed in primary research. Three main areas are distinguished: basic medical research, clinical research, and epidemiological research. In individual cases, it may be difficult to classify individual studies to one of these three main categories or to the subcategories. In the interests of clarity and to avoid excessive length, the authors will dispense with discussing special areas of research, such as health services research, quality assurance, or clinical epidemiology. Figure 1 gives an overview of the different study types in medical research.
Classification of different study types
*1 , sometimes known as experimental research; *2 , analogous term: interventional; *3 , analogous term: noninterventional or nonexperimental
This scheme is intended to classify the study types as clearly as possible. In the interests of clarity, we have excluded clinical epidemiology — a subject which borders on both clinical and epidemiological research ( 3 ). The study types in this area can be found under clinical research and epidemiology.
Basic medical research (otherwise known as experimental research) includes animal experiments, cell studies, biochemical, genetic and physiological investigations, and studies on the properties of drugs and materials. In almost all experiments, at least one independent variable is varied and the effects on the dependent variable are investigated. The procedure and the experimental design can be precisely specified and implemented ( 1 ). For example, the population, number of groups, case numbers, treatments and dosages can be exactly specified. It is also important that confounding factors should be specifically controlled or reduced. In experiments, specific hypotheses are investigated and causal statements are made. High internal validity (= unambiguity) is achieved by setting up standardized experimental conditions, with low variability in the units of observation (for example, cells, animals or materials). External validity is a more difficult issue. Laboratory conditions cannot always be directly transferred to normal clinical practice and processes in isolated cells or in animals are not equivalent to those in man (= generalizability) ( 2 ).
Basic research also includes the development and improvement of analytical procedures—such as analytical determination of enzymes, markers or genes—, imaging procedures—such as computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging—, and gene sequencing—such as the link between eye color and specific gene sequences. The development of biometric procedures—such as statistical test procedures, modeling and statistical evaluation strategies—also belongs here.
Clinical studies include both interventional (or experimental) studies and noninterventional (or observational) studies. A clinical drug study is an interventional clinical study, defined according to §4 Paragraph 23 of the Medicines Act [Arzneimittelgesetz; AMG] as "any study performed on man with the purpose of studying or demonstrating the clinical or pharmacological effects of drugs, to establish side effects, or to investigate absorption, distribution, metabolism or elimination, with the aim of providing clear evidence of the efficacy or safety of the drug."
Interventional studies also include studies on medical devices and studies in which surgical, physical or psychotherapeutic procedures are examined. In contrast to clinical studies, §4 Paragraph 23 of the AMG describes noninterventional studies as follows: "A noninterventional study is a study in the context of which knowledge from the treatment of persons with drugs in accordance with the instructions for use specified in their registration is analyzed using epidemiological methods. The diagnosis, treatment and monitoring are not performed according to a previously specified study protocol, but exclusively according to medical practice."
The aim of an interventional clinical study is to compare treatment procedures within a patient population, which should exhibit as few as possible internal differences, apart from the treatment ( 4 , e1 ). This is to be achieved by appropriate measures, particularly by random allocation of the patients to the groups, thus avoiding bias in the result. Possible therapies include a drug, an operation, the therapeutic use of a medical device such as a stent, or physiotherapy, acupuncture, psychosocial intervention, rehabilitation measures, training or diet. Vaccine studies also count as interventional studies in Germany and are performed as clinical studies according to the AMG.
Interventional clinical studies are subject to a variety of legal and ethical requirements, including the Medicines Act and the Law on Medical Devices. Studies with medical devices must be registered by the responsible authorities, who must also approve studies with drugs. Drug studies also require a favorable ruling from the responsible ethics committee. A study must be performed in accordance with the binding rules of Good Clinical Practice (GCP) ( 5 , e2 – e4 ). For clinical studies on persons capable of giving consent, it is absolutely essential that the patient should sign a declaration of consent (informed consent) ( e2 ). A control group is included in most clinical studies. This group receives another treatment regimen and/or placebo—a therapy without substantial efficacy. The selection of the control group must not only be ethically defensible, but also be suitable for answering the most important questions in the study ( e5 ).
Clinical studies should ideally include randomization, in which the patients are allocated by chance to the therapy arms. This procedure is performed with random numbers or computer algorithms ( 6 – 8 ). Randomization ensures that the patients will be allocated to the different groups in a balanced manner and that possible confounding factors—such as risk factors, comorbidities and genetic variabilities—will be distributed by chance between the groups (structural equivalence) ( 9 , 10 ). Randomization is intended to maximize homogeneity between the groups and prevent, for example, a specific therapy being reserved for patients with a particularly favorable prognosis (such as young patients in good physical condition) ( 11 ).
Blinding is another suitable method to avoid bias. A distinction is made between single and double blinding. With single blinding, the patient is unaware which treatment he is receiving, while, with double blinding, neither the patient nor the investigator knows which treatment is planned. Blinding the patient and investigator excludes possible subjective (even subconscious) influences on the evaluation of a specific therapy (e.g. drug administration versus placebo). Thus, double blinding ensures that the patient or therapy groups are both handled and observed in the same manner. The highest possible degree of blinding should always be selected. The study statistician should also remain blinded until the details of the evaluation have finally been specified.
A well designed clinical study must also include case number planning. This ensures that the assumed therapeutic effect can be recognized as such, with a previously specified statistical probability (statistical power) ( 4 , 6 , 12 ).
It is important for the performance of a clinical trial that it should be carefully planned and that the exact clinical details and methods should be specified in the study protocol ( 13 ). It is, however, also important that the implementation of the study according to the protocol, as well as data collection, must be monitored. For a first class study, data quality must be ensured by double data entry, programming plausibility tests, and evaluation by a biometrician. International recommendations for the reporting of randomized clinical studies can be found in the CONSORT statement (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials, www.consort-statement.org ) ( 14 ). Many journals make this an essential condition for publication.
For all the methodological reasons mentioned above and for ethical reasons, the randomized controlled and blinded clinical trial with case number planning is accepted as the gold standard for testing the efficacy and safety of therapies or drugs ( 4 , e1 , 15 ).
In contrast, noninterventional clinical studies (NIS) are patient-related observational studies, in which patients are given an individually specified therapy. The responsible physician specifies the therapy on the basis of the medical diagnosis and the patient’s wishes. NIS include noninterventional therapeutic studies, prognostic studies, observational drug studies, secondary data analyses, case series and single case analyses ( 13 , 16 ). Similarly to clinical studies, noninterventional therapy studies include comparison between therapies; however, the treatment is exclusively according to the physician’s discretion. The evaluation is often retrospective. Prognostic studies examine the influence of prognostic factors (such as tumor stage, functional state, or body mass index) on the further course of a disease. Diagnostic studies are another class of observational studies, in which either the quality of a diagnostic method is compared to an established method (ideally a gold standard), or an investigator is compared with one or several other investigators (inter-rater comparison) or with himself at different time points (intra-rater comparison) ( e1 ). If an event is very rare (such as a rare disease or an individual course of treatment), a single-case study, or a case series, are possibilities. A case series is a study on a larger patient group with a specific disease. For example, after the discovery of the AIDS virus, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in the USA collected a case series of 1000 patients, in order to study frequent complications of this infection. The lack of a control group is a disadvantage of case series. For this reason, case series are primarily used for descriptive purposes ( 3 ).
The main point of interest in epidemiological studies is to investigate the distribution and historical changes in the frequency of diseases and the causes for these. Analogously to clinical studies, a distinction is made between experimental and observational epidemiological studies ( 16 , 17 ).
Interventional studies are experimental in character and are further subdivided into field studies (sample from an area, such as a large region or a country) and group studies (sample from a specific group, such as a specific social or ethnic group). One example was the investigation of the iodine supplementation of cooking salt to prevent cretinism in a region with iodine deficiency. On the other hand, many interventions are unsuitable for randomized intervention studies, for ethical, social or political reasons, as the exposure may be harmful to the subjects ( 17 ).
Observational epidemiological studies can be further subdivided into cohort studies (follow-up studies), case control studies, cross-sectional studies (prevalence studies), and ecological studies (correlation studies or studies with aggregated data).
In contrast, studies with only descriptive evaluation are restricted to a simple depiction of the frequency (incidence and prevalence) and distribution of a disease within a population. The objective of the description may also be the regular recording of information (monitoring, surveillance). Registry data are also suited for the description of prevalence and incidence; for example, they are used for national health reports in Germany.
In the simplest case, cohort studies involve the observation of two healthy groups of subjects over time. One group is exposed to a specific substance (for example, workers in a chemical factory) and the other is not exposed. It is recorded prospectively (into the future) how often a specific disease (such as lung cancer) occurs in the two groups ( figure 2a ). The incidence for the occurrence of the disease can be determined for both groups. Moreover, the relative risk (quotient of the incidence rates) is a very important statistical parameter which can be calculated in cohort studies. For rare types of exposure, the general population can be used as controls ( e6 ). All evaluations naturally consider the age and gender distributions in the corresponding cohorts. The objective of cohort studies is to record detailed information on the exposure and on confounding factors, such as the duration of employment, the maximum and the cumulated exposure. One well known cohort study is the British Doctors Study, which prospectively examined the effect of smoking on mortality among British doctors over a period of decades ( e7 ). Cohort studies are well suited for detecting causal connections between exposure and the development of disease. On the other hand, cohort studies often demand a great deal of time, organization, and money. So-called historical cohort studies represent a special case. In this case, all data on exposure and effect (illness) are already available at the start of the study and are analyzed retrospectively. For example, studies of this sort are used to investigate occupational forms of cancer. They are usually cheaper ( 16 ).
Graphical depiction of a prospective cohort study (simplest case [2a]) and a retrospective case control study (2b)
In case control studies, cases are compared with controls. Cases are persons who fall ill from the disease in question. Controls are persons who are not ill, but are otherwise comparable to the cases. A retrospective analysis is performed to establish to what extent persons in the case and control groups were exposed ( figure 2b ). Possible exposure factors include smoking, nutrition and pollutant load. Care should be taken that the intensity and duration of the exposure is analyzed as carefully and in as detailed a manner as possible. If it is observed that ill people are more often exposed than healthy people, it may be concluded that there is a link between the illness and the risk factor. In case control studies, the most important statistical parameter is the odds ratio. Case control studies usually require less time and fewer resources than cohort studies ( 16 ). The disadvantage of case control studies is that the incidence rate (rate of new cases) cannot be calculated. There is also a great risk of bias from the selection of the study population ("selection bias") and from faulty recall ("recall bias") (see too the article "Avoiding Bias in Observational Studies"). Table 1 presents an overview of possible types of epidemiological study ( e8 ). Table 2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of observational studies ( 16 ).
Study of rare diseases such as cancers | Case control studies |
Study of rare exposure, such as exposure to industrial chemicals | Cohort studies in a population group in which there has been exposure (e.g. industrial workers) |
Study of multiple exposures, such as the combined effect of oral contraceptives and smoking on myocardial infarction | Case control studies |
Study of multiple end points, such as mortality from different causes | Cohort studies |
Estimate of the incidence rate in exposed populations | Exclusively cohort studies |
Study of covariables which change over time | Preferably cohort studies |
Study of the effect of interventions | Intervention studies |
Selection bias | N/A | 2 | 3 | 1 |
Recall bias | N/A | 3 | 3 | 1 |
Loss to follow-up | N/A | N/A | 1 | 3 |
Confounding | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
Time required | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 |
Costs | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 |
1 = slight; 2 = moderate; 3 = high; N/A, not applicable.
*Individual cases may deviate from this pattern.
Selecting the correct study type is an important aspect of study design (see "Study Design in Medical Research" in volume 11/2009). However, the scientific questions can only be correctly answered if the study is planned and performed at a qualitatively high level ( e9 ). It is very important to consider or even eliminate possible interfering factors (or confounders), as otherwise the result cannot be adequately interpreted. Confounders are characteristics which influence the target parameters. Although this influence is not of primary interest, it can interfere with the connection between the target parameter and the factors that are of interest. The influence of confounders can be minimized or eliminated by standardizing the procedure, stratification ( 18 ), or adjustment ( 19 ).
The decision as to which study type is suitable to answer a specific primary research question must be based not only on scientific considerations, but also on issues related to resources (personnel and finances), hospital capacity, and practicability. Many epidemiological studies can only be implemented if there is access to registry data. The demands for planning, implementation, and statistical evaluation for observational studies should be just as high for observational studies as for experimental studies. There are particularly strict requirements, with legally based regulations (such as the Medicines Act and Good Clinical Practice), for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of clinical studies. A study protocol must be prepared for both interventional and noninterventional studies ( 6 , 13 ). The study protocol must contain information on the conditions, question to be answered (objective), the methods of measurement, the implementation, organization, study population, data management, case number planning, the biometric evaluation, and the clinical relevance of the question to be answered ( 13 ).
Important and justified ethical considerations may restrict studies with optimal scientific and statistical features. A randomized intervention study under strictly controlled conditions of the effect of exposure to harmful factors (such as smoking, radiation, or a fatty diet) is not possible and not permissible for ethical reasons. Observational studies are a possible alternative to interventional studies, even though observational studies are less reliable and less easy to control ( 17 ).
A medical study should always be published in a peer reviewed journal. Depending on the study type, there are recommendations and checklists for presenting the results. For example, these may include a description of the population, the procedure for missing values and confounders, and information on statistical parameters. Recommendations and guidelines are available for clinical studies ( 14 , 20 , e10 , e11 ), for diagnostic studies ( 21 , 22 , e12 ), and for epidemiological studies ( 23 , e13 ). Since 2004, the WHO has demanded that studies should be registered in a public registry, such as www.controlled-trials.com or www.clinicaltrials.gov . This demand is supported by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) ( 24 ), which specifies that the registration of the study before inclusion of the first subject is an essential condition for the publication of the study results ( e14 ).
When specifying the study type and study design for medical studies, it is essential to collaborate with an experienced biometrician. The quality and reliability of the study can be decisively improved if all important details are planned together ( 12 , 25 ).
Translated from the original German by Rodney A. Yeates, M.A., Ph.D.
Conflict of interest statement
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in the sense of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.
share this!
September 9, 2024
This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:
fact-checked
peer-reviewed publication
trusted source
written by researcher(s)
by Evangeline Mantzioris, The Conversation
MSG is making a comeback. The internet's favorite cucumber salad recipe includes fish sauce, cucumber, garlic, and—as the video's creator Logan tells us with a generous sprinkle from the bag—"MSG, obviously."
But for many of us, it's not obvious. Do you have a vague sense MSG is unhealthy but you're not sure why? Here is the science behind monosodium glutamate, how it got a bad rap, and whether you should add it to your cooking.
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the amino acids that make up proteins.
It occurs naturally in foods such as mature cheeses, fish, beef, mushrooms, tomatoes, onion and garlic. It provides their savory and "meaty" flavor, known as umami .
MSG has been used to season food for more than 100 years . Traditionally it was extracted from seaweed broth, but now it's made by fermenting starch in sugar beets, sugar cane and molasses.
Today, it's widely used as a flavor enhancer in many dishes and pre-packaged goods, including soups, condiments and processed meats.
There is no chemical difference between the MSG found in food and the additive.
For most people, yes. MSG is a safe and authorized additive, according to the Australian agency that regulates food. This corresponds with food standards in the United States , the European Union and the United Kingdom .
Two major safety reviews have been conducted: one in 1987 by a United Nations expert committee and another in 1995 by the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. Both concluded MSG was safe for the general population.
In 2017, the European Food Safety Authority updated its stance and set a recommended limit based on body weight , aimed to prevent headaches and increased blood pressure.
That limit is still higher than most people consume. The authority says an 80kg person should not have more than 2.4g of added MSG per day. For reference , Europeans average less than a gram per day (0.3-1 gram), while in Asia the intake is somewhere between 1.2-1.7 grams a day.
Food Standards Australia New Zealand says the European update does not raise any new safety concerns not already assessed.
Despite the evidence, the idea that MSG is dangerous persists.
Its notorious reputation can be traced back to a hoax letter published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1968. A doctor claiming to have experienced palpitations, numbness and fatigue after eating at a Chinese restaurant suggested that MSG could be to blame.
With a follow-up article in the New York Times , the idea of "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" took off. Eating MSG was associated with a range of symptoms, including headache, hives, throat swelling, itching and belly pain.
However, an early randomized control trial showed no difference in these symptoms between people who were given MSG versus a placebo. This has since been confirmed in a review of many studies .
A very small percentage of people may have hypersensitivities to MSG. The reported reaction is now known as MSG symptom complex, rather than so-called Chinese restaurant syndrome, with its problematic racial connotations. Symptoms are usually mild, short-term and don't need treatment.
One study study looked at 100 people with asthma, 30 of whom believed they had hypersentivities to MSG. However, when participants were blinded to whether they were consuming MSG, not one reported a reaction.
If you believe you do react to added MSG, it's relatively easy to avoid. In Australia, it is listed in ingredients as either monosodium glutamate or flavor enhancer 621.
Using MSG instead of regular salt may help reduce your overall sodium intake, as MSG contains about one-third the amount of sodium.
One study found people who ate soup seasoned with MSG rather than salt actually liked it more. They still found it salty to taste, but their sodium intake was reduced by 18%.
MSG still contains sodium, so high use is associated with increased blood pressure . If you're using MSG as a substitute and you have high blood pressure, you should closely monitor it (just as you would with other salt products).
If you want to—yes. Unless you are one of the rare people with hypersensitivities, enhancing the flavor of your dish with a sprinkle of MSG will not cause any health problems. It could even help reduce how much salt you use.
If you're vegetarian or vegan , cooking with MSG could help add the umami flavor you may miss from animal products such as meat, fish sauce and cheese.
But buying foods with added MSG? Be aware, many of them will also be ultra-processed , and it's that—not the MSG—that's associated with poor physical and mental health outcomes .
Explore further
Feedback to editors
4 hours ago
6 hours ago
7 hours ago
8 hours ago
Aug 15, 2024
Feb 21, 2022
Jun 14, 2019
Feb 25, 2024
Aug 1, 2024
Apr 15, 2022
12 hours ago
11 hours ago
Sep 7, 2024
Sep 5, 2024
Let us know if there is a problem with our content.
Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).
Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request
Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.
Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.
Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Medical Xpress in any form.
Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.
More information Privacy policy
We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Join Today To Connect With Employers Hiring Chemists Pros. We Curate, Verify & Deliver Jobs Based On Your Preferences. All You Have To Do Is Apply!
Learn about the different types of medical research careers, the skills and education required, and the best schools to pursue them. Find out how to balance research, patient care, and education as a physician-scientist or a biomedical scientist.
Learn about 14 different types of medical scientists, from laboratory technicians to neuroscientists, and their average salaries and primary duties. Find out how to become a medical scientist and what skills and education you need for each specialty.
Learn about the education, pay, and job outlook of medical scientists who conduct research to improve human health. Find out how to become a medical scientist and explore similar occupations.
How To Become a Medical Scientist in 7 Steps (With Skills)
Learn about the duties, work environment, and education requirements of medical scientists, who conduct research to improve human health. Find out the median wage, job outlook, and similar occupations for medical scientists.
How to Become a Medical Scientist | Schooling & ...
Biomedical scientists work in diverse settings, contributing to advancements in medical research, healthcare, and the understanding of diseases. The workplace of a biomedical scientist can vary based on their specific role, specialization, and the nature of their work.
Job outlook for a medical scientist Medical researchers have a significant role in improving public health. Health institutions, research centres, government agencies, and private entities need their expertise to contribute to public health. From 2021 to 2031, the balance in labour supply and demand witnessed in recent years is likely to continue.
The Complete Guide To Becoming a Clinical Scientist
A medical researcher, also known as a medical scientist, studies diseases and conditions to help improve and protect public health. They design studies, perform research and collect and analyze data. The purpose of their studies may be to find ways to prevent or treat diseases or identify connections between certain conditions and illnesses.
The career revolves around clinical investigations to understand human diseases and rigorous lab work. As a medical researcher, formal education will not suffice. As a developing medical ...
A Medical Research Scientist conducts research with the goal of understanding diseases and improving human health. May study biology and causes of health problems, assess effectiveness of treatments or develop new pharmaceutical products. May direct clinical trials to gather data..
Medical scientists often lead teams of technicians or students who perform support tasks. For example, a medical scientist may have assistants take measurements and make observations for the scientist's research. Medical scientists usually specialize in an area of research, with the goal of understanding and improving human health outcomes.
The Research Scientist I is responsible for assisting in all ongoing preclinical projects both in vitro and in vivo and will help gather data to evaluate and improve the current products/delivery ...
How To Become A Research Scientist: What To Know
So You Want to Be a Medical Scientist
Physician-Scientists
The Medical Research Scholars Program is a year long research immersion program for future clinician-scientists that advances health by inspiring careers in biomedical research. By engaging students in basic, clinical, or translational research investigations, offering a curriculum rich in didactics and professional development, and featuring a ...
Types of Study in Medical Research - PMC
Clinical Scientist in Boydton, VA ... Senior Scientist Clinical Research. Johnson & Johnson Santa Clara, CA 1 week ago Be among the first 25 applicants See who Johnson & Johnson has hired for this ...
Abbott is a global healthcare leader, creating breakthrough science to improve people's health. We're always looking towards the future, anticipating changes in medical science and technology ...
Research Scientist. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Chapel Hill, NC 27599. $95,000 - $128,000 a year. Full-time. Depending on Program priorities and personal interests, there is flexibility in the research data scientist role to develop their own extramural funding for…. ·.
The AD of CIP serves as the primary NCI official with overall responsibility for research, education, and coordination of activities related to oncologic imaging for the extramural NCI community. ... radiation safety, nuclear medicine, and imaging. Find a job here in industry as a certified medical physicist, chief physicist, or clinical ...
Scientists make gains in search for biomarker that could help predict SIDS. New insight into the cause of sudden infant death syndrome. UC San Francisco scientists found biomarkers they say ...
Biotechnology Research, Hospitals and Health Care, and Pharmaceutical Manufacturing ... Medical Laboratory Scientist jobs 20,960 open jobs
Works with cross-functional team with oversight by the Medical Lead to conduct clinical studies, including clinical and safety data review, site interface on clinical study content, preparation of meeting materials, communication plans (e.g., administrative letters, protocol amendments, protocol deviations), safety and medical monitoring, preparation of status update reports, and study close ...
MSG is making a comeback. The internet's favorite cucumber salad recipe includes fish sauce, cucumber, garlic, and—as the video's creator Logan tells us with a generous sprinkle from the bag ...