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Teens are getting lazier — but not for the reasons you think.

Teens are scoring high marks in doing less.

An average of three out of four students are not getting enough physical activity, rates of which are shown to decline between ninth and 12th grades, according to a study of 360,000 high schools students by University of Georgia researchers.

It also revealed a strong divide along the gender line with only 35% of female students engaged in regular activity compared to 57% of male students.

But study authors blame education — not lazy teens — for their lack of regular exercise.

“The length of recess, physical facilities and social environments at schools have been found to affect physical activity among students,” said the study’s lead author Janani Rajbhandari-Thapa, an associate professor of health policy and management at the UGA, in a statement .

Rajbhandari-Thapa has recently helped lead Georgia public schools in an initiative to increase health and physical education in the state.

“Over time, [Georgia] has observed declining levels of physical activity among all adolescents, but the rate is higher among female middle and high school students,” said Rajbhandari-Thapa, whose new study was published in the Journal of Adolescence.

The new research reinforces previous findings that gym-class requirements have been in decline in recent decades, as well as data showing that obesity among adolescents ages 12 to 19 has tripled since the 1990s.

Rajbhandari-Thapa suspects that a supportive social environment may be key to encouraging interest in sports and exercise among students, which means creating safe spaces against bullying and discrimination, among other cautionary measures.

“We do not know much about the role of school climate on physical activity,” said Rajbhandari-Thapa. “There must have been barriers that were faced by certain groups of students. Hence, we wanted to investigate the difference by gender.”

Rajbhandari-Thapa’s team measured a school’s “climate” against eight factors: school connectedness, peer social support, adult social support, cultural acceptance, physical environment, school safety, peer victimization (bullying) and school support environment.

Broadly, schools with more positive social climates yielded more physically active students, the study revealed — while the only gender-based divergence they found across the eight factors was bullying.

Notably, women who reported having been bullied in school tended to be more physically active than their less bullied counterparts — whereas men who experienced bullying were less likely to engage in school-based exercise.

Rajbhandari-Thapa suggested this particular statistic may coincide with society’s gender norms.

“For example, female students who are active in sports and physically active may not fit the gender norm and hence may face bullying,” she said.

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The science of laziness.

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It can feel good lounging around doing nothing… sometimes too good! Whether it’s to avoid work or escape physical activity, we’ve all had those days. But why are some people way lazier than others? Is there a couch-potato gene that causes lazy behavior? ASAPScience investigates the science of laziness.

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The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools

Introduction.

Physical Education (PE) is an essential component of the educational curriculum. Far from being just an outlet for physical activity, PE in schools offers a multitude of benefits for students. This blog post explores five significant benefits of incorporating physical education in school curricula.

1. Physical Health and Fitness

Developing Healthy Bodies: PE plays a crucial role in promoting physical health and fitness. Regular physical activity helps students maintain a healthy weight, build and strengthen muscles, and improve cardiovascular health. This physical development is crucial during the formative school years.

2. Mental and Emotional Well-being

Boosting Mental Health: Physical education contributes significantly to mental and emotional well-being. Exercise is known to release endorphins, the body�s natural mood lifters, which can reduce stress and anxiety. PE provides an outlet for releasing tension and promoting mental clarity, contributing to overall emotional balance.

3. Social Skills and Teamwork

Enhancing Social Interaction: PE fosters social skills and teamwork. Participating in team sports and activities teaches students about cooperation, leadership, and effective communication. These social skills, developed through physical education, are vital for personal and professional success.

4. Academic Performance

Supporting Cognitive Functions: There is a strong link between physical activity and improved academic performance. Regular physical activity is known to enhance cognitive functions, such as concentration, memory, and creativity, leading to better performance in academic subjects.

5. Instilling Lifelong Habits

Promoting Lifelong Fitness: Physical education instills lifelong habits of regular exercise. By exposing students to various sports and physical activities, PE encourages them to find physical activities they enjoy, fostering a lifelong commitment to health and fitness.

Additional Benefits of Physical Education

Developing motor skills.

PE helps in the development of motor skills. Activities like throwing, catching, jumping, and running enhance hand-eye coordination, balance, and agility, which are essential for overall physical development.

Building Self-Esteem and Confidence

Physical education can significantly boost self-esteem and confidence. Achievements in sports and physical activities provide a sense of accomplishment, while also helping students understand and appreciate their bodies' capabilities.

Addressing Health Challenges

With rising concerns over childhood obesity and sedentary lifestyles, PE plays a critical role in addressing these health challenges. It provides a structured environment for engaging in regular physical activity, combating the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle.

Encouraging Inclusivity and Respect

PE promotes inclusivity and respect. Inclusive PE classes where students of all abilities participate together foster an environment of mutual respect and understanding.

Physical Education is not just an ancillary part of the school curriculum but a vital component that offers extensive benefits. From enhancing physical health to improving mental well-being, fostering social skills, boosting academic performance, and instilling lifelong fitness habits, the importance of PE in schools cannot be overstated. It prepares students not only for academic success but for a healthier, balanced, and fulfilling life.

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Physical education for healthier, happier, longer and more productive living

The time children and adults all over the world spend engaging in physical activity is decreasing with dire consequences on their health, life expectancy, and ability to perform in the classroom, in society and at work.

In a new publication, Quality Physical Education, Guidelines for Policy Makers , UNESCO urges governments and educational planners to reverse this trend, described by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a pandemic that contributes to the death of 3.2 million people every year, more than twice as many as die of AIDS.

The Guidelines will be released on the occasion of a meeting of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, (28-30 January).*

UNESCO calls on governments to reverse the decline in physical education (PE) investment that has been observed in recent years in many parts of the world, including some of the wealthiest countries. According to European sources, for example, funding and time allocation for PE in schools has been declining progressively over more than half of the continent, and conditions are not better in North America.

The new publication on PE, produced in partnership with several international and intergovernmental organizations**, advocates quality physical education and training for PE teachers. It highlights the benefits of investing in PE versus the cost of not investing (cf self-explanatory infographics ).

“The stakes are high,” says UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova. “Public investment in physical education is far outweighed by high dividends in health savings and educational objectives. Participation in quality physical education has been shown to instil a positive attitude towards physical activity, to decrease the chances of young people engaging in risky behaviour and to impact positively on academic performance, while providing a platform for wider social inclusion.”

The Guidelines seek to address seven areas of particular concern identified last year in UNESCO’s global review of the state of physical education , namely: 1. Persistent gaps between PE policy and implementation; 2. Continuing deficiencies in curriculum time allocation; 3. Relevance and quality of the PE curriculum; 4. Quality of initial teacher training programmes; 5. Inadequacies in the quality and maintenance of facilities; 6. Continued barriers to equal provision and access for all; 7. Inadequate school-community coordination.

The recommendations to policy-makers and education stake-holders are matched by case studies about programmes, often led by community-based nongovernmental organizations. Success stories in Africa, North and Latin America, Asia and Europe illustrate what can be achieved by quality physical education: young people learn how to plan and monitor progress in reaching a goal they set themselves, with a direct impact on their self-confidence, social skills and ability to perform in the classroom.

While schools alone cannot provide the full daily hour of physical activity recommended for all young people, a well-planned policy should promote PE synergies between formal education and the community. Experiences such as Magic Bus (India) which uses physical activity to help bring school drop outs back to the classroom highlight the potential of such school-leisure coordination.

The publication promotes the concept of “physical literacy,” defined by Canada’s Passport for Life organization of physical and health educators as the ability to move “with competence and confidence in a wide variety of physical activities in multiple environments that benefit the healthy development of the whole person. Competent movers tend to be more successful academically and socially. They understand how to be active for life and are able to transfer competence from one area to another. Physically literate individuals have the skills and confidence to move any way they want. They can show their skills and confidence in lots of different physical activities and environments; and use their skills and confidence to be active and healthy.”

For society to reap the benefit of quality physical education, the guidelines argue, planners must ensure that it is made available as readily to girls as it is to boys, to young people in school and to those who are not.

The Guidelines were produced at the request of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) and participants at the Fifth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (Berlin 2013). UNESCO and project partners will proceed to work with a number of countries that will engage in a process of policy revision in this area, as part of UNESCO’s work to support national efforts to adapt their educational systems to today’s needs (see Quality physical education contributes to 21st century education ).

Media contact: Roni Amelan, UNESCO Press Service, r.amelan(at)unesco.org , +33 (0)1 45 68 16 50

Photos are available here: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/multimedia/photos/photo-gallery-quality-physical-education/

* More about the CIGEPS meeting

** The European Commission, the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), UNDP, UNICEF, UNOSDP and WHO.

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Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013)

Chapter: 4 physical activity, fitness, and physical education: effects on academic performance.

Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key Messages

•  Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.

•  Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.

•  Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.

•  Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.

•  Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.

•  Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

A lthough academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child’s ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted (Basch, 2010), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health (Strong et al., 2005; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status (Sirin, 2005), parental involvement

(Fan and Chen, 2001), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child’s academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance (Stanca, 2006; Baxter et al., 2011). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance (Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance (Rasberry et al., 2011). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind (Hillman et al., 2008).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity (Tomporowski, 2003; Budde et al., 2008; Hillman et al., 2009; Pesce et al., 2009; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task (Hillman et al., 2009; Pontifex et al., 2012). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter (Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting (Tomporowski et al., 2008b).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention (Grieco et al., 2009; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011), increased on-task behaviors (Mahar et al., 2006), and improved academic performance (Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom

with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated (Benden et al., 2011). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson (Kibbe et al., 2011; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students (Stewart et al., 2004). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance (Fredericks et al., 2006), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task (Kamijo et al., 2011).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults (Colcombe and Kramer, 2003), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults (Tomporowski, 2003). Some have considered age as part of the analysis (Etnier et al., 1997, 2006). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children (Sibley and Etnier, 2003) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance (Trudeau and Shephard, 2008, 2010; Singh et al., 2012); physical activity and mental and cognitive health (Biddle and Asare, 2011); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance (Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011). The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands (Singh et al., 2012) and Taiwan (Chih and Chen, 2011). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs (Biddle and Asare, 2011; Singh et al., 2012).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children’s health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author’s report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children’s health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children’s basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education (Sirin, 2005).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity (NASPE, 2004). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject (Grissom, 2005; Cottrell et al., 2007; Carlson et al., 2008; Chomitz et al., 2008; Wittberg et al., 2010; Van Dusen et al., 2011). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease (Dwyer et al., 1979, 1983). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment,

which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance (Shephard et al., 1984; Shephard, 1986; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey (Trudeau et al., 1999). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males (Trudeau et al., 1999); most of the associations were significant but weak (Trudeau et al., 2004). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males (Trudeau et al., 2001). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity (Glenmark, 1994; Telama et al., 1997). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education (Grissom, 2005), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing

using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness (Welk et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2010); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests (Zhu et al., 2010). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage (Duncan et al., 2007), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly (Van Dusen et al., 2011). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship (Van Dusen et al., 2011).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007), socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness (London and Castrechini, 2011).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness (Grissom, 2005; Cottrell et al., 2007; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009; Cooper et al., 2010; Welk et al., 2010; Wittberg et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2010; Van Dusen et al., 2011), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance (Castelli et al, 2007; Chomitz et al., 2008; Roberts et al., 2010; Welk et al., 2010; Chih and Chen, 2011; London and Castrechini, 2011; Van Dusen et al., 2011). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory (Sibley and Etnier, 2003). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a, 2011; Kamijo et al., 2011; Monti et al., 2012). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children (Sallis et al., 1999). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition (Sallis et al., 1999), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national

average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979), six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998-1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement (Carlson et al., 2008). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise (Budde et al., 2008) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time (Coe et al., 2006) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores (Coe et al., 2006).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations (Mechanic and Hansell, 1987; Dexter, 1999; Crosnoe, 2002; Eitle and Eitle, 2002; Stephens and Schaben, 2002; Eitle, 2005; Miller et al., 2005; Fox et al., 2010; Ruiz et al., 2010); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season (Silliker and Quirk, 1997); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance (Hanson and Kraus, 1998); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students (Daley and Ryan, 2000).

Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance (Fisher et al., 1996). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities (Page et al., 1998; Elder et al., 2000; Taliaferro et al., 2010), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function (Sallis et al., 1999; Hillman et al., 2008; Tomporowski et al., 2008a; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008; Rasberry et al., 2011).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers (Sallis et al., 1999), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom (Kibbe et al., 2011). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention (Hillman et al., 2003, 2009; Pontifex et al., 2012), better working memory (Pontifex et al., 2009), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors (Mahar et al., 2006; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011). Yet single bouts

of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults (Tomporowski, 2003). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003).

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Pontifex et al., 2013). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity

FIGURE 4-1 Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders’s (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

FIGURE 4-2 Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

exercise that involved exergaming (O’Leary et al., 2011). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise (Drollette et al., 2012). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement (Donnelly et al., 2009). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3-6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012), 36 preadolescent children completed

FIGURE 4-3 Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003-2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control group ( N = 86) were significant ( p <.01). SOURCE: Donnelly et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting (Tomporowski et al., 2008b). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment

given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance (Mahar et al., 2006; Grieco et al., 2009).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week (Mahar et al., 2006). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years (Kibbe et al., 2011). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence (Reed et al., 2010) and higher academic achievement scores (Donnelly et al., 2009).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task (Grieco et al., 2009). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity (NASPE,

2006). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play (Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch (Getlinger et al., 1996; Wechsler et al., 2001).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom (Barros et al., 2009). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior (Jarrett et al., 1998). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners’ attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading (Pellegrini et al., 1995). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance (Wilkins et al., 2003). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive

processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997, for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999), who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging (Kramer et al., 1999).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention (MacDonald et al., 2000; Botvinick et al., 2001). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2006), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment (Davidson et al., 2006). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information (Davidson et al., 2006). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally,

cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action (Blair et al., 2005; Davidson et al., 2006; Diamond, 2006). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one’s notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis (Smith et al., 2010) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance (Hillman et al., 2006).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies (Colcombe et al., 2003, 2004, 2006; Kramer and Erickson, 2007; Hillman et al., 2008) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue (Colcombe et al., 2003), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions (Raz, 2000). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning)

intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health (Etnier et al., 1997; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003; Tomporowski, 2003; Thomas et al., 2012).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult (Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one’s interactions within one’s environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music (Elbert et al., 1995; Chan et al., 1998; Münte et al., 2001) and sports (Hatfield and Hillman, 2001; Aglioti et al., 2008), thus supporting

the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a,b) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus (Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Cohen et al., 1999). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory (Chaddock et al., 2010a). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children (Chaddock et al., 2011) and neuroimaging findings in older adults (Erickson et al., 2009, 2011) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation (Van Praag et al., 1999) and survival (Neeper et al., 1995) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation (Chaddock et al., 2010b), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution (Casey et al., 2008; Aron et al., 2009), as well as the growing body

of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition (Colcombe and Kramer, 2003; Hillman et al., 2008; Chang and Etnier, 2009). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies (Voss et al., 2011; Chaddock et al., 2012) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced dur-

ing task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies (Hillman et al., 2005, 2009; Pontifex et al., 2011) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment (Donchin, 1981). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated (Donchin and Coles, 1988) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus (Polich, 1997; Polich and Heine, 2007). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed (Kutas et al., 1977; Duncan-Johnson, 1981) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time (Magliero et al., 1984; Ila and Polich, 1999). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children (Hillman et al., 2005, 2009), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required (Pontifex et al., 2011). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action (Hillman et al., 2009; Pontifex et al., 2011).

Two ERP studies (Hillman et al., 2009; Pontifex et al., 2011) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance (Gehring et al., 1993; Holroyd and Coles, 2002) or more generally the detection of response conflict (Botvinick et al., 2001; Yeung et al., 2004), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-

response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children (Pontifex et al., 2011). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports (Datar et al., 2004; Datar and Sturm, 2006; Judge and Jahns, 2007; Gable et al., 2012) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see

Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010; Raji et al., 2010; Carnell et al., 2011), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences

FIGURE 4-4 Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer’s disease; PD = Parkinson’s disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008, for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control (Kamijo et al., 2012c). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly (Kamijo et al., 2012a) and are less accurate (Kamijo et al., 2012b,c) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials (Davis et al., 2011; Kamijo et al., 2011) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal

studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity (Estabrooks et al., 2003) and cognitive control (Mezzacappa, 2004). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009; Kamijo et al., 2011, 2012a,b,c; Pontifex et al., 2011), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children

in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

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35 Fun and Effective PE Exercises for Dynamic Physical Education Classes

Looking for PE exercises that are both enjoyable and effective? Our guide delivers 35 varied activities perfect for energizing students and enriching your physical education classes. Experience an array of PE exercises, from fluid warm-up routines to imaginative obstacle courses, all designed to foster enthusiasm and physical well-being without complicated setups. Ideal for educators seeking practical, inclusive exercises, this guide is your ticket to enlivened gym classes that students will anticipate with excitement.

Table of Contents

Key Takeaways

• Make sure to kick off PE classes with energizing warm-ups like the Jumping Jack PE Game, as they prepare students mentally and physically for the activities ahead, enhance coordination, and build enthusiasm.
• Get creative with obstacle courses and classic games by adding unique tweaks that ensure safety, boost engagement, and teach valuable skills like teamwork, coordination, and strategic thinking.
• Use varying exercises during circuit training and finish with cool-downs and reflection to ensure students of all fitness levels are engaged, prevent post-exercise issues, and discuss what they’ve learned.

PE Exercises! Energizing Warm-Up Routines

Warm-ups are indispensable before any physical education class. But why is that? Well, warming up prepares the students physically and mentally for the PE activities that lie ahead. It’s like revving up the engine before setting off on a journey. Thus, it’s time to get started!

Ever thought of transforming the humble jumping jack into a fun activity? The Jumping Jack PE Game is a brilliant example of how we can turn a simple exercise into a healthy competition. The game not only improves coordination but also sets the tone for the physical education class. It’s no longer about just performing jumping jacks correctly; it’s about the thrill of the game and mastering the technique.

Consider incorporating Stretch & Flex sessions for added flexibility. Guiding students through a variety of stretches prepares their muscles and joints for the day’s activities in PE class. As a physical education teacher, it’s like a gentle wake-up call for the muscles, prepping them for the energetic gym class that awaits.

Beyond enhancing students’ agility, these indoor activities also build their enthusiasm for the class. And the best part is, these exercises don’t require any fancy equipment. A bit of space and a whole lot of enthusiasm are all you need!

Obstacle Course Creations

Want to heighten the excitement? Explore the intriguing sphere of obstacle course creations! While designing an indoor obstacle course, safety comes first. We’re talking cushions, yoga mats, blankets for padding, and keeping sharp corners out of the way. But don’t let that deter you from the fun.

Children can be involved in planning their obstacle course, drawing a few ideas from shows like ‘Ninja Warrior’ or social media for inspiration. Imagine having balance beams made with planks or tape, crepe paper laser mazes, and Shark Zone games to challenge students’ agility and coordination.

However, the excitement doesn’t end here. We can introduce the following elements to enhance the obstacle course experience:

• Tunnels made from items like chairs, play mats, pillowcases, or sleeping bags
• Sack races to add an extra challenge
• Simulated ball pit using laundry baskets
• Timers to enhance hand-eye coordination and motivate children to improve their obstacle course performance

What would an obstacle course be without an accompanying storyline? Let’s turn our students into ninjas or pirates, making the course more captivating and imaginative. An obstacle course that’s not just about physical challenges but also about engaging children’s cognitive skills.

Classic Game Reimagined

Occasionally, traditional games can prove to be enjoyable, particularly when revamped with a novel twist. Classic games like dodgeball and tag can be reimagined to introduce new dynamics, promote teamwork, and boost strategic thinking. Take Blob Ball, for example. It’s a dodgeball variant where players form a ‘Blob’ and can throw dodgeballs while linked, creating a unique team dynamic. Doctor Dodgeball introduces a hidden ‘doctor’ who revives eliminated players, adding a layer of mystery and strategy.

Tag games, like the classic tag game, also offer ample room for creativity. In Blob Tag, students expand the Blob by tagging and linking with others, transforming the game into a collective pursuit. Bridge Tag requires tagged players to form a bridge with their bodies, introducing an element of physical creativity.

By reshaping these classic games, we not only make the learning process enjoyable but also instill valuable skills like teamwork, coordination, and strategic thinking in students. After all, PE classes should be just as mentally stimulating as they are physically!

Circuit Training Stations

Circuit training stations serve as a smorgasbord of PE exercises, catering to a variety of interests and abilities. They offer a variety of exercises targeting different muscle groups and fitness levels, using equipment like cones, hula hoops, and jump ropes to diversify activities.

Circuit training involves sequences of movements such as jumping, agility ladders, or strength exercises, with each station featuring a distinct activity. Students can work individually, with partners, or in small groups, and circuits can serve as a warm-up, cool-down, or main activity.

Using visual aids like exercise cards or videos can guide students through the circuit and indicate when to change stations. And to maintain student engagement, circuits should feature varied and regularly changing activities and exercises.

The beauty of circuit training lies in its flexibility. It caters to various fitness levels and creates an environment where all students can participate and improve their agility and quickness. Plus, it’s a great way to keep the students active and engaged throughout the class!

Rhythmic Activities for All Ages

Why not infuse our PE classes with a touch of rhythm? Rhythmic activities like musical chairs and line dancing not only promote coordination, balance, and cultural appreciation but also engage students in fun, music-based movement.

Musical chairs can be adapted into a dynamic warm-up activity in PE classes, blending the fun of the game with fitness challenges like:

• running backward
• jumping jacks
• side shuffles

And for a little extra zing, we can use hula hoops instead of chairs, encouraging creativity in movement and broadening the game for different ages.

Speaking of age, these rhythmic activities cater to children from age three onwards and become more complex to match the abilities of older children around seven and up. The game enhances:

• physical coordination
• social skills
• emotional regulation
• exposes children to diverse cultural music

And let’s not forget line dancing! The Cupid Shuffle, an easily teachable line dance, promotes coordination and is a familiar favorite at social events, making physical activity appealing.

Therefore, it’s time to get our students moving to the rhythm as they play music during their students walk!

Creative Ball Games

Why not kick things off with some inventive ball games? Games like Balloon Tennis, Basketball Court Quests, and Pac-Man Dribble can enhance hand-eye coordination, teamwork, and strategic thinking in a fun and engaging way.

Balloon Tennis is a safe and child-friendly game where participants use makeshift racquets made from paper plates taped to jumbo popsicle sticks, and a balloon serves as the ball. The game can be diversified with games like Down On One Knee, Smash Down, and Keepy Uppy, each promoting skills such as balance, quick reflexes, and hand-eye coordination.

Basketball Court Quests include shooting and dribbling activities progressing through 9 skill levels to cater to different student abilities, and can be combined with throwing and catching exercises for enhanced skill development.

These games aren’t just about the fun; they’re about teaching students valuable skills while ensuring they’re having a great time playing an enjoyable game. After all, learning is always more effective when it’s enjoyable!

Solo Exercise Endeavors

While group activities effectively encourage teamwork and cooperation, solo exercises have a charm of their own. They allow students to focus on individual progress and self-motivation while honing personal growth and skills.

Take the ‘Whirlwind Challenge,’ for example. It’s a jump rope game that promotes continuous movement and skill enhancement, as eliminated players practice until a timer runs out. And then there’s the ‘Pac-Man Dribble’ exercise that adapts the concept of the video game into a physical activity where players dribble a basketball along gymnasium lines, avoiding being tagged by the ‘Pac-Man’.

These solo exercises encourage students to challenge themselves at their own pace, allowing them to focus on their own progress. After all, every student is unique, and solo exercises provide an opportunity for them to shine in their own light!

Parachute Playtime

Whoever said that parachutes were solely meant for skydiving? Parachute playtime activities like Little Waves, Big Waves, and NASCAR engage students in cooperative play, promoting teamwork, coordination, and quick reaction time.

Activities like ‘Little Waves’ and ‘Big Waves’ teach students coordination by practicing hand movements to create various wave sizes. ‘Travel with the Parachute’ promotes teamwork by requiring all students to move in the same direction and then reverse while holding the parachute.

Dynamic activities like ‘NASCAR’ combine the formation of a parachute tent with movement around the parachute aiming to return to the original spot before it falls. In this game, two teams can compete against each other to make it more exciting. And games like ‘Color Center’ involve students switching places based on the color called out, integrating quick reaction time with fun.

Parachute games not only provide a fun change of pace but also foster vital skills such as teamwork, coordination, and quick reflexes. Plus, they’re a great way to add a touch of adventure and parachute fun to the PE class!

No-Equipment Necessary

At times, a dash of creativity is all it takes to make a PE class enjoyable. No-equipment necessary games like The Floor is Lava, Shadow Tag, and Fitness Charades promote agility, quick decision-making, and physical activity without the need for special equipment.

‘The Floor is Lava’ involves students imagining the gym floor as lava, and they must hop between safe spots like cushions or mats when the music stops, promoting agility and quick decision-making. Shadow Tag, a version of tag played without any equipment, encourages kids to step on each other’s shadows, promoting speed and agility in an engaging way.

Fitness Charades, adapted from Survivor Tag, enables students to act out different sports or exercises and gets them moving without the need for any props or equipment. These games are not only cost-effective but also incredibly fun and engaging. After all, creativity is the best tool we have!

Cool-Down and Reflection

After an exhilarating PE class, a cool-down period and some reflection are in order. Cool-down exercises help prevent lightheadedness or dizziness by allowing blood flow to return to normal and reduce muscle soreness by flushing out lactic acid buildup.

Gentle yoga poses that enhance relaxation and alignment post-exercise include:

• Supine Spinal Twist
• Happy Baby Pose
• Legs Up the Wall Pose
• Corpse Pose

Activities like Pigeon Pose and Supported Bridge Pose can specifically target hip flexors and the spine, increasing mobility after vigorous PE activities.

Additionally, we should never overlook the significance of reflection. A group discussion to reflect on their experiences and learnings from the class can be an excellent way for students to share their thoughts and feedback. It’s a chance for them to express what they enjoyed, what they found challenging, and what they look forward to in future PE classes.

We’ve journeyed through a host of engaging and innovative PE exercises, from energizing warm-up routines to creative ball games, rhythmic activities, parachute playtime, and even no-equipment necessary games. These activities are not only fun but also enhance students’ agility, coordination, teamwork, and strategic thinking. So, let’s keep the spirit of innovation alive in our PE classes, ensuring that every class is a journey of exploration, fun, and learning!

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the best exercise for pe.

The best exercise for PE is running, yoga, and pelvic floor workouts. A new study suggests that exercise could be as effective as pharmaceutical treatments.

What do elementary students learn in PE?

In elementary PE, students learn fundamental skills like running, jumping, and throwing, which prepare them for success in middle and high school PE classes. These skills include locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills.

How to do PE in a classroom?

You can do PE in a classroom by playing games that require minimal equipment, such as a scrunched up piece of paper. Have fun!

Why are warm-up routines important in PE classes?

Warm-up routines are important in PE classes because they prepare students physically and mentally for the activities ahead, enhance agility, and get students excited for the class. So, it’s important to always start with a good warm-up.

How can classic games be reimagined for PE classes?

You can reimagine classic games for PE classes by adding innovative twists that promote teamwork and strategic thinking. For instance, try turning dodgeball into Blob Ball, where players link up and throw dodgeballs as a team.

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2 thoughts on “35 Fun and Effective PE Exercises for Dynamic Physical Education Classes”

I have a concern for proofreading… Under the Frequently Asked Questions, “What is the Best Exercise for PE?” Do you all realize it says the best exercise for premature ejaculation?

Thank you. It has been updated and we will make sure our editor does a more thorough job in the future. Truly appreciate you catching that!

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Physical Activity and Health Through Physical Education

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Physical education (PE) is an academic subject that provides the opportunity for students to learn the knowledge and skills needed to establish and maintain physically active lifestyles throughout their lifetime. Unequivocally, PE play a crucial role in augmenting physical activity (PA) daily levels, which are linked to a myriad of health benefits. One of the aims of this chapter is to provide an overview of findings from systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have explored PE’s influence on youth health, highlighting its impact on physical fitness, academic performance, cognition, and obesity-related factors within the educational framework. Despite the necessity of additional research, PE via PA programs has revealed improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and academic outcomes and has shown a positive effect on obesity-related factors. The chapter emphasizes that PE offer unique opportunities for enhancing health in the school environment, which are not offered by other academic subjects. The chapter concludes by highlighting the necessity for ongoing research to better understand and advocate for PE’s importance in both public health and educational contexts.

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Muntaner-Mas, A. (2024). Physical Activity and Health Through Physical Education. In: García-Hermoso, A. (eds) Promotion of Physical Activity and Health in the School Setting. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65595-1_7

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Physical activity boosting resources support classroom performance

by American Heart Association

This back to school season, the American Heart Association and the National Football League (NFL), in collaboration with its 32 NFL clubs, are offering students exciting ways to move more with NFL PLAY 60. Physical activity is vital for youth health and well-being, especially as students return to school. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, active kids learn better, focus more, think more clearly, react to stress more calmly, and perform and behave better in the classroom.

The American Heart Association, devoted to a world of healthier lives for all and celebrating 100 years of lifesaving service, recommends that kids get a minimum of 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day. Developing healthy habits and reducing sedentary behaviors in kids is key to immediate and long-term health benefits. The benefits of physical activity are unmatched when it comes to lowering risks of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, high blood pressure, and other diseases.

But the perks of physical activity also extend to the classroom as active kids have better sleep, improved cognition, and an overall better quality of life. Helping students understand the full benefits of getting active can establish healthy habits at a young age for a better chance of healthier adulthood.

"At the American Heart Association, our future is about improving yours. Engaging children in 60 minutes of physical activity alongside the NFL with the longstanding NFL PLAY 60 programming is one way we are working to advance health and hope for everyone," said Nancy Brown, chief executive officer of the American Heart Association. "Our collaboration with the NFL as the 2024-25 season kicks off demonstrates our shared commitment to a world of longer healthier lives through physical activity, heart health and safety."

Rooted in American Heart Association science, NFL PLAY 60 helps children engage in physical activity and improve their physical and mental wellness. This year's in-school activation will provide students opportunities to move throughout the 2024-2025 NFL season from Kickoff to the 2025 NFL Draft.

One-way students can get active with NFL PLAY 60 is through a series of NFL PLAY 60 Fitness Break broadcasts. The first of the two broadcasts will air on Thursday, September 19 at 1 p.m. ET/ 12 p.m. CT / 10 a.m. PT with the theme Move More for Whole Health. The broadcast will breakdown the levels of physical activity including warm-ups, moderate intensity, vigorous intensity and cool downs with the help of the Kansas City Chiefs, Baltimore Ravens, Philadelphia Eagles and the Green Bay Packers.

An additional Fitness Break broadcast will be held later in the school year on Thursday, February 6, just before Super Bowl LIX. Advanced registration for both broadcasts is required.

"As the 2024 NFL season kicks off, we're thrilled to once again partner with the American Heart Association to encourage children to get moving through our NFL PLAY 60 initiative," said NFL Senior Vice President of Social Responsibility Anna Isaacson. "Now heading into its 18th season, PLAY 60 has emerged as a national model to promote youth health and well-being. The NFL is committed to building on our efforts to ensure children across the country have access to the resources they need to live healthy lifestyles."

The second opportunity for students to get active is through the new Daily Movement Moment Challenge during the month of October, which will utilize the NFL PLAY 60 app , available free on iOS and Android devices. The daily Movement Moment feature on the app is a 15-minute opportunity for students to incorporate movement into their day by following an NFL PLAY 60 avatar who guides them through four different exercises. The featured exercises change daily.

A paper tracker will be provided for teachers to use within their classrooms to indicate that they completed the daily Movement Moment as a group. Teachers will indicate the NFL club geographically closest to them on their tracker and 32 winners, one for each of the club teams, will be randomly selected to receive a $1,000 NFL PLAY 60 grant to be used towards the purchase of physical activity equipment.

The last PLAY 60 resource available to students to meet their daily movement goal is the NFL PLAY 60 Exercise Library , which features two-to-three minute on-demand exercise videos from each of the 32 NFL teams featuring players, NFL Legends, cheerleaders and mascots.

The NFL and the American Heart Association have been teaming up since 2006 to inspire kids through fun and engaging ways to get physically active for at least 60 minutes a day. Information on NFL PLAY 60 resources and available grant opportunities can be found online at heart.org/NFLPLAY60 .

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Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and Emotional Well-Being among Primary School Children

Irina kliziene.

1 Educational Research Group, Institute of Social Science and Humanity, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas 44249, Lithuania

Ginas Cizauskas

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Design, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas 51424, Lithuania; [email protected]

Saule Sipaviciene

3 Department of Applied Biology and Rehabilitation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania; [email protected]

Roma Aleksandraviciene

4 Department of Coaching Science, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania or moc.liamg@ednargallenamor (R.A.); [email protected] (K.Z.)

5 Sports Centre, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas 51211, Lithuania

Kristina Zaicenkoviene

Associated data.

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

(1) Background: It has been identified that schools that adopt at least two hours a week of physical education and plan specific contents and activities can achieve development goals related to physical level, such as promoting health, well-being, and healthy lifestyles, on a personal level, including bodily awareness and confidence in physical skills, as well as a general sense of well-being, greater security and self-esteem, sense of responsibility, patience, courage, and mental balance. The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of physical education programs on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children. (2) Methods: The experimental group comprised 45 girls and 44 boys aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 48 girls and 46 boys aged 8–9 years (Second Grade), while the control group comprised 43 girls and 46 boys aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 47 girls and 45 boys aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). All children attended the same school. The Children’s Physical Activity Questionnaire was used, which is based on the Children’s Leisure Activities Study Survey questionnaire, which includes activities specific to young children (e.g., “playing in a playhouse”). Emotional well-being status was explored by estimating three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) was used. (3) Results: When analysing the pre-test results of physical activity of the 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that both the First Grade (92.15 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (97.50 MET, min/week) participants in the experimental group were physically active during physical education lessons. When exploring the results of somatic anxiety in EG (4.95 ± 1.10 points), both before and after the experiment, we established that somatic anxiety in EG was 4.55 ± 1.00 points after the intervention program, demonstrating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.785, p < 0.05, P = 0.540). (4) Conclusions: We established that the properly constructed and purposefully applied eight-month physical education program had positive effects on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children (6–7 and 8–9 years) in three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. Our findings suggest that the eight-month physical education program intervention was effective at increasing levels of physical activity. Changes in these activities may require more intensive behavioural interventions with children or upstream interventions at the family and societal levels, as well as at the school environment level. These findings have relevance for researchers, policy makers, public health practitioners, and doctors who are involved in health promotion, policy making, and commissioning services.

1. Introduction

Teaching in physical education has evolved rapidly over the last 50 years, with a spectrum of teaching styles [ 1 ], teaching models [ 2 ], curricular models [ 3 ], instruction models [ 4 ], current pedagogical models [ 5 , 6 ], and physical educational programs [ 7 ]. As schools provide benefits other than academic and conceptual skills at present, we can determine new ways to meet different goals through a variety of methodologies assessing contents from a multidisciplinary perspective. Education regarding these skills should also be engaged following a non-traditional methodology in order to overcome the lack of resources in traditional approaches and for teachers to meet their required goals [ 8 ].

Schools are considered an important setting to influence the physical activity of children, given the amount of time spent at school and the potential for schools to reach large numbers of children. Schools may be a barrier for interventions to promote physical activity (PA). Children are required to sit quietly for the majority of the day in order to receive academic lessons. A typical school day is represented by approximately 6 h, which may be extended by 30 min or longer if the child is provided motorized transportation and does not actively commute to and from school. Donnelly et al. [ 9 ] found that teachers who modelled PA by active participation in physical activity across the curriculum (i.e., promoted 90 min/week of moderate to vigorous physically active academic lessons; 3.0 to 6.0 METs, ∼10 min each) had greater SOFIT (a Likert scale from one to five, anchored with lying down for one and very active for five) scores shown by their students, compared to primary students with teachers using a lower level of modelling. Some studies have proposed the use of prediction models of METs for children, including accelerometer data. In such models, the slope and intercept of ambulatory activities (e.g., walking and running) differ from those of non-ambulatory activities, such as ball-tossing, aerobic dance, and playing with blocks [ 10 , 11 ]. Wood and Hall [ 12 ] found that children aged 8–9 years engaged in significantly higher moderate to vigorous physical activities during team games (e.g., football), compared to movement activities in PE lessons (e.g., dance).

It has been identified that schools which adopt two hours a week of PE and plan specific contents and activities to achieve development goals at the physical level can promote health, well-being, and healthy lifestyles on a personal level, including bodily awareness and confidence in one’s physical skills, as well as a general sense of well-being, greater security and self-esteem, sense of responsibility, patience, courage, and mental balance at the social level, including integration within society, a sense of solidarity, social interactions, team spirit, fair play, and respect for rules and for others, as well as wider human and environmental values [ 13 , 14 ]. Physical activity programs have been identified as potential strategies for improving social and emotional well-being in at-risk youth [ 15 ]. Emotional well-being permeates all aspects of the experience of children and has emerged as an essential element of mental health and reduction of anxiety, as well as a core component of health in general. Schools have a strong effect on children’s emotional development, and as they are an ideal environment to foster children’s emotional learning and well-being, failing to optimize the opportunity to do so could impact communities in negative ways [ 16 , 17 ]. Physical activity and exercise have positive effects on mood and anxiety, and a great number of studies have described the associations between physical activity and general well-being, mood, and anxiety [ 18 ]. Physical inactivity may also be associated with the development of mental disorders: some clinical and epidemiological studies have shown associations between physical activity and symptoms of depression and anxiety in cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal studies [ 19 ]. Low physical activity levels have also been associated with an increased prevalence of anxiety [ 20 ]. Levels of physical activity lower than those recommended by the World Health Organization are classified as a lack of physical activity or physical inactivity. Current guidelines on physical activity for children and adolescents aged 5–17 years generally recommend at least 60 min daily of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities [ 21 ].

Therefore, we formulated the following research hypothesis: The application of a physical education program can have a positive impact on the physical activity and emotional well-being among primary school students.

The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of a physical education program on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children.

Novelty of the work: For the first time, PE curriculum has been developed for second grade children, a new approach to physical education methodology. For the first time, anxiety is measured between first and second grades. Physical education has been a part of school curriculums for many years, but, due to childhood obesity, focus has increased on the role that schools play in physical activity and monitoring physical fitness [ 22 , 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants.

The schools utilized in this study were randomly chosen from primary schools in Lithuania. Four schools were chosen from different areas of Lithuania, which are typical of the Lithuanian education system (i.e., the state system), exercising in accordance with the description of primary, basic, and secondary education programs approved by the Lithuanian Minister of Education and Science in 2015. It ought to be noted that these schools structured classes without applying selection criteria; accordingly, it very well may be said that the students in the randomly chosen classes were additionally randomly allocated to the experimental and control groups. A non-probabilistic accurate sample was utilized in the study, where subjects were incorporated relying upon the objectives of the study.

The time and place of the study, with the consent of the guardians, were settled upon ahead of time with the school administration. This study was approved by the research ethics committee of the Kaunas University of Technology, Institute of Social Science and Humanity (Protocol No V19-1253-03).

The experimental group included 45 young women and 44 young men aged 6–7 years (First Grade) and 48 young women and 46 young men aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). The control group included 43 young women and 46 young men aged 6–7 (First Grade) and 47 young women and 45 young men aged 8–9 years (Second Grade). All children went to a same school.

2.2. Instruments

2.2.1. the evaluation of physical activity.

The Children’s Physical Activity Questionnaire [ 24 ] was utilized, which is based on the Children’s Leisure Activities Study Survey (CLASS) questionnaire, which includes activities explicit to small children, such as “playing in a playhouse.” The original intent of the proxy-reported CLASS questionnaire for 6–9 year olds was to evaluate the type, recurrence, and intensity of physical activity over a standard week [ 24 ].

2.2.2. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale

Enthusiastic well-being status was investigated by estimating three principal dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) contains 37 items with 28 items used to measure anxiety and an additional 9 items that present an index of the child’s level of defensiveness. We were only concerned with the factor analysis of anxiety; along these lines, only those 28 items used to gauge anxiety were utilized. The RCMAS comprises three factors: (1) somatic anxiety, consisting of 12 items; (2) personality anxiety, consisting of 8 items; and (3) social anxiety, consisting of 8 items [ 25 ].

The outcomes were estimated as follows: (1) physical anxiety (more than or equal to 6.0 points—high somatic level, from 5.9 to 4.5 points—typical somatic level, and from 4.4 to 1.0 points—low somatic level); (2) personality anxiety (from 2.0 to 2.5 points—low personality anxiety level, from 2.6 to 3.5 points—typical personality anxiety level, and from 3.6 to 4.5 points—high personality anxiety level); and (3) social anxiety (more than or equal to 5.5 points—high social anxiety level, from 5.4 to 4.5 points—typical social anxiety level, and from 4.4 to 3.3 points—low social anxiety level). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the subscales ranged from 0.72 to 0.73.

2.3. Procedure

In this study, a pre-/mid-/post-test experimental methodology was utilized, in order to avoid any interruption of educational activities, due to the random selection of children in each group. The experimental group (First and Second Grades) was trialled for eight months. The technique for the physical education program was developed, and a model of educational factors that encourage physical activity for children was constructed.

Likewise, the methodical material for the physical education program [ 7 , 24 ] was prepared. The methodology depended on the dynamic exercise, intense motor skills repetition, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and the physical activity distribution in the classroom (DIDSFA) model [ 26 , 27 ] ( Table 1 ).

Dynamic exercise, intense motor skills reiteration, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and physical activity distribution in the classroom (DIDSFA) model—expanding dynamic learning time in primary physical education.

A physical education program was designed in order to advance physical activity to a significant degree, show development skills, and be agreeable. The suggested recurrence of physical education classes was three days out of the week. A typical DIDSFA First Grade model exercise lasted 30 min and had three sections: health fitness activities (10 min), ability fitness activities (15 min), and unwinding, focus, and reflection (5 min). The Second Grade model exercise lasted 45 min and comprised four sections: health fitness activities (20 min), ability fitness activities (20 min), and unwinding, focus, and reflection (5 min). Ten health-related activity units were designed, including aerobic dance, aerobic games, strolling/running, and jump-rope. The movements were developed by changing the intensity, length, and intricacy of the activities.

Although our primary focus was creating cardiovascular stamina, brief activities to develop stomach and chest strength, as well as movement skills, were incorporated. To improve motivation, children self-estimated and recorded their fitness levels from month to month. Four game units which developed ability-related fitness were incorporated (basketball, football, gymnastics, and athletics), and details of healthy lifestyles and unconventional physical activities were introduced. These sports and games had the potential for advancing cardiovascular fitness and speculation in the child’s community (e.g., fun transfers); unwinding, focus, and reflection improving with regular exercise; and valuable impacts for meditation or unwinding, namely through children’s yoga ( Table 2 ).

Physical education program (First and Second Grades).

During the study, physical education activities were taught through physical schooling, by preparing a textbook comprising two interrelated parts: (a) a textbook and (b) children’s notes. The textbooks were filled with logical tasks, self-evaluation, and activities relating to spatial perception and self-improvement. The methodological devices provide strategies for practicing with textbooks. The physical education pack considers a “natural” kind of integration and dynamic learning, building awareness, encouraging sensitivity to nature, and supporting healthy styles of living. The physical education pack takes into consideration a “natural” kind of integration and dynamic learning, building awareness, encouraging sensitivity to nature, and supporting healthy styles of living. The instructor’s manual has a unified structure, which makes it simple to utilize. Its proposals and advice are clear. The advanced version helps educators in their planning and execution activities.

The material seriously assesses intercultural mindfulness and sensitivity. The gender description is balanced; the two personalities highlighted in the textbook support this methodology. Vaquero-Solís et al. found that mixed procedures in their interventions, executed using a new methodology, greatly affected the participants [ 30 ]. Once each month, the standard methodology was applied, during which the change from hypothesis to practice was continuous. During the first exercise of the month, the material in the textbook was analysed for the future, and undertakings for the month were presented. The hypothesis was set up during practical sessions. During the hypothetical exercises, the children additionally had the chance to move around, practising the physical tasks given in the textbook. During the last exercise of the month, the tasks introduced in the textbook were performed; the activities of the month were rehashed, recalled, summed up, and assessed; and the assignment of children’s notes were performed. Children from the control group attended unmodified physical education exercises.

2.4. Data Analysis

Graphic statistics are presented for all methodical factors as the mean ± SD. The impact size of the Mann–Whitney U test was determined using the equation r = Z / N , where Z is the z-score and N is the total size of the sample (small: 0.1; medium: 0.3; large: 0.5). Statistical significance was defined as p ≤ 0.05 for all analyses. Analyses were carried out by utilizing the SPSS 23 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3.1. Physical Activity of 6–7- and 8–9-Year-Old Children in the Experimental Group

Analysing the physical activity pre-test results of the 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that both the First Grade (92.15 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (97.50 MET, min/week) children in the experimental group were physically active during physical education lessons. The analysis of physical activity types, such as cycling to school, showed no differences in age, according to the MET; however, there were differences in walking to school—First Grade (15.98 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (23.50 MET, min/week)—in terms of age, according to the MET. In the context of average physical activity, a higher indicator (805.95 MET, min/week) was detected in the First Grade of the experimental group, in comparison with the Second Grade (1072.12 MET, min/week). Statistically significant differences were found in average MET for the First Grade (931.60 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1211.55 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 3 ). The post-test of the First Grade (115.83 MET, min/week) experimental group was carried out to analyse average physical activity, in comparison with the Second Grade experimental group (130.01 MET, min/week), during physical education lessons. In the post-test, walking to school—First Grade (16.07 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (30.37 MET, min/week)—showed differences in age, according to the MET. Statistically significant differences were found during the analysis of average MET for the First Grade (1108.41 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1453.62 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 3 ). We found a statistically significant difference between experimental and control groups ( p < 0.05) and between pre- and post-test.

Physical activity levels determined using the MET method.

Note. *, p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between physical activity types; # , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between experimental and control groups; $ , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between First and Second Grades; § , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between pre-test and post-test.

3.2. Physical Activity of 6–7- and 8–9-Year-Old Children in the Control Group

Analysing the results considering the physical activity of 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children, it turned out that in the control group, both the First Grade (91.68 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (95.87 MET, min/week) children were physically active in physical education lessons during the pre-test. The analysis of physical activity types, such as cycling to school, found no differences in age, according to the MET. We found that walking to school—First Grade (0.00 MET, min/week) and Second Grade (22.15 MET, min/week—showed differences in age, according to the MET. Statistically significant differences were found during the analysis of average MET for the First Grade in the control group (906.40 MET, min/week), compared to the Second Grade (1105.71 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 4 ). The post-test results for the First Grade of the control group (98.10 MET, min/week) were determined by the analysis of average physical activity, in comparison with the Second Grade children of the same group (105.70 MET, min/week), when doing physical education lessons. Statistically significant differences were found in average MET for the First Grade (995.66 MET, min/week), in comparison with the Second Grade (1211.70 MET, min/week; p < 0.05, Table 4 ).

The physical activity level using the MET method (the pre-test/post-test results of the control group).

The study performed at the beginning of the experiment showed that in the pre-test, the level of somatic anxiety of the primary school children in the CG was average (4.95 ± 1.10 points). When exploring the results of the somatic anxiety in the EG (4.95 ± 1.10 points) before and after the experiment, after the intervention programme, somatic anxiety in the EG was 4.55 ± 1.00 points, indicating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.785, p < 0.05, P = 0.540; Figure 1 a).

Pre- and post-test levels of somatic anxiety ( a ), personality anxiety ( b ), and social anxiety ( c ) in primary school children. # , p < 0.05 between experimental and control groups; $ , p < 0.05 between First and Second Grades; *, p < 0.05 between pre- and post-test.

3.3. Anxiety of 6–7-Year-Old Children (First Grade)

When dealing with the personality anxiety results, we established that in the pre- and post-tests, the results of CG students did not statistically significantly differ (3.63 ± 0.80 points and 3.48 ± 0.50 points, respectively; F = 0.139, p > 0.05, P = 0.041). When analysing EG personality anxiety results in the pre- and post-tests, after the intervention programme, the EG personality anxiety results significantly decreased (3.55 ± 1.10 points and 2.78 ± 0.90 points, respectively; F = 5.195, p < 0.05, P = 0.549; Figure 1 b).

In the pre-test, the level of social anxiety in the CG was 6.15 ± 1.30 points. The post-test CG result was statistically significantly lower (5.18 ± 1.20 points; F = 4.75, p < 0.05, P = 0.752). When analysing the levels of the social anxiety of the EG, pre- and post-test results decreased after the intervention programme (6.32 ± 1.10 points and 4.25 ± 1.40 points, respectively) and significantly differed (F = 8.029, p < 0.05, P = 0.673; Figure 1 c).

3.4. Anxiety of 8–9-Year-Old Children (Second Grade)

The research performed at the beginning of the experiment showed that in the pre-test, the level of somatic anxiety of the adolescents in the CG was average (4.63 ± 1.10 points). When exploring the somatic anxiety results in the EG (4.50 ± 0.90 points) before the experiment and after it, a decrease in somatic anxiety in the EG was established (4.10 ± 0.75 points), indicating lower levels of depression, seclusion, somatic complaints, aggression, and delinquent behaviours (F = 4.482, p < 0.05, P = 0.610; Figure 1 a).

When dealing with the personality anxiety results, we established that in the pre- and post-test, the results of CG students were not statistically significantly different (3.10 ± 0.85 points and 2.86 ± 0.67 points, respectively; F = 0.127, p > 0.05, P = 0.057). When analysing the pre- and post-test EG personality anxiety results, after the intervention programme, the EG personality anxiety results decreased (2.93 ± 0.93 points vs. 2.51 ± 1.00 points, respectively; F = 6.498, p < 0.05, P = 0.758; Figure 1 b).

In the pre-test, the level of social anxiety in the CG was 4.55 ± 1.30 points. The post-test CG result was statistically significantly lower (3.70 ± 1.40 points; F = 4.218, p < 0.05, P = 0.652). When analysing the levels of social anxiety in the EG, pre- and post-test results decreased after the intervention programme (4.65 ± 1.15 points and 3.01 ± 1.50 points, respectively) and were significantly different (F = 8.021, p < 0.05, P = 0.798; Figure 1 c).

4. Discussion

The outcomes of this study showed that the proposed procedure for a physical education program and educational model encouraging physical activity in children had an impact on three primary dimensions—somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety—for children aged 6–7 and 8–9 years. The procedure depended on dynamic exercise, intense motor skills reiteration, differentiation, seating and parking reduction, and physical activity dissemination in the classroom model. Following eight months of applying this study’s physical education program, anxiety decreased in the children. Schools provide an opportune site for addressing PA promotion in children. With children spending a substantial number of their waking hours during the week at school, increased opportunities for PA are needed, especially considering trends toward decreased frequency of physical education in schools [ 31 , 32 ]. Considering physical education curricula, Chen et al. [ 29 ] described the following:

• Aerobic activities: Most daily activities should be moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, such as bicycling, playing sports and active games, and brisk walking.
• Strength training: The program should include muscle-strengthening activities at least three days a week, such as performing calisthenics, weight-bearing activities, and weight training.
• Bone strengthening: Bone-strengthening activities should also be included at least three days a week, such as jump-rope, playing tennis or badminton, and engaging in other hopping-type activities.

School-related physical activity interventions may reduce anxiety, increase resilience, improve well-being, and increase positive mental health in children and adolescents [ 33 ]. Increasing activity levels and sports participation among the least active young people should be a target of community- and school-based interventions in order to promote well-being. Frequency of physical activity has been positively correlated with well-being and negatively correlated with both anxiety and depressive symptoms, up to a threshold of moderate frequency of activity. In a multi-level mixed effects model, more frequent physical activity and participation in sport were both found to independently contribute to greater well-being and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in both sexes [ 34 ]. There does not appear to be an additional benefit to mental health associated with meeting the WHO-recommended levels of activity [ 9 ]. Physical activity interventions have been shown to have a small beneficial effect in reducing anxiety; however, the evidence base is limited. Reviews of physical activity and cognitive functioning have provided evidence that routine physical activity can be associated with improved cognitive performance and academic achievement, but these associations are usually small and inconsistent [ 35 ]. Advances in neuroscience have resulted in substantial progress in linking physical activity to cognitive performance, as well as to brain structure and function [ 36 ]. The executive functions hypothesis proposes that exercise has the potential to induce vascularization and neural growth and alter synaptic transmission in ways that alter thinking, decision making, and behaviour in those regions of the brain tied to executive functions—in particular, the pre-frontal cortices [ 37 , 38 ]. The brain may be particularly sensitive to the effects of physical activity during pre-adolescence, as the neural circuitry of the brain is still developing [ 8 ].

During their school years, about 33% of primary and secondary school students experience the adverse effects of test anxiety [ 39 ]. Anxiety is an aversive motivational state which occurs when the degree of perceived threat is viewed as high [ 40 ]. In the concept of anxiety, a frequently made differentiation is created between trait anxiety, referring to differences in personality dimensions, and state anxiety, alluding to anxiety as a transient mindset state. These two kinds of anxiety hamper performance, particularly during complex and intentionally requested assignments [ 41 ]. Mavilidi et al. [ 42 ] presented a study investigating whether a short episode of physical activity can mitigate test anxiety and improve test execution in 6th grade children (11–12 years). The discoveries of the study by the above authors expressed that, even though test anxiety was not decreased as expected, short physical activity breaks can be utilized before assessments without blocking academic performance [ 43 ].

Physical activity has been associated with physiological, developmental, mental, cognitive, and social health benefits in young people [ 36 ]. While the health benefits of physical activity are well-established, higher levels of physical activity have also been associated with enhanced academic-related outcomes, including cognitive function, classroom behaviour, and academic achievement [ 44 ]. The evidence suggests a decline in physical activity from early childhood [ 45 ]. The physical and psychological benefits of physical activity for children and adolescents include reduced adiposity and cardiometabolic risk factors, as well as improvements in musculoskeletal health and psychological well-being [ 33 , 46 , 47 ]. However, population based-studies have reported that more than half of all children internationally are not meeting the recommended levels of physical activity, with rates of compliance declining with age from the early primary school years [ 9 ]. Therefore, it is imperative to promote physical activity and intervene early in childhood, prior to such a decline in physical activity [ 48 ]. Schools are considered ideal settings for the promotion of children’s physical activity. There are multiple opportunities for children to be physically active over the course of the school week, including during break times, sport, physical education class, and active travel to and from school [ 49 ]. There exists strong evidence of the benefits of physical activity for the mental health of children and adolescents, mainly in terms of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and cognitive functioning [ 35 ].

Physiological adaptation (e.g., hormonal regulation) of the body during physical exercise can be applied additionally to psychosocial stressors, thus improving mental health [ 48 ]. Subsequently, it has been stated that intense physical activity which improves health-related fitness may be expected to evoke neurobiological changes affecting psychological and academic performance [ 43 ].

The results of this review contribute to knowledge about the multifaceted interactions influencing how physical activity can be enhanced within a school setting, given certain contexts. Evidence has indicated that school-based interventions can be effective in enhancing physical activity, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, psychosocial outcomes associated with physical activity (e.g., enjoyment), and other markers of health status in children. School- and community-based physical activity interventions, as part of an obesity prevention or treatment programme, can benefit the executive functions of children, specifically those with obesity or who are overweight [ 46 ]. Considering the positive effects of physical activity on health in general, these findings may reinforce school-based initiatives to increase physical activity [ 34 ]. This involves classroom teachers incorporating physical activity into class time, either by integrating physical activity into physically active lessons, or adding short bursts of physical activity with curriculum-focused active breaks [ 50 , 51 ]. It is widely accepted that physical inactivity is an important risk factor for chronic diseases; prevention strategies should begin as early as childhood, as the prevalence of physical inactivity increases even more in adolescence [ 52 ]. A physically active lifestyle begins to form very early in childhood and has a positive tendency to persist throughout life [ 52 ].

We all have an important role to play in increasing children’s physical activity. Schools must promote and influence a healthy environment for children. Most primary school children spend an average of 6–7 h a day at school, which is most of their daytime. A balanced and adapted physical education lesson provides cognitive content and training for developing motor skills and knowledge in the field of physical activity. Our 8-month physical education program can give children the opportunity to increase physical activity and improve emotional well-being, which can encourage children to be physically active throughout life.

5. Conclusions

Low physical activity in children is a major societal problem. The growing number of children with obesity is a concern for doctors and scientists. The focus of our study was to improve emotional well-being and physical activity in children. Since elementary school children spend most of their day at school, physical education lessons are a great tool to increase physical activity. A balanced and adapted physical education lesson can help to draw children’s attention to the health benefits of physical activity. It was established that the properly constructed and purposefully applied 8-month physical education program had an impact on the physical activity and emotional well-being of primary school children (i.e., 6–7 and 8–9 year olds) in three main dimensions: somatic anxiety, personality anxiety, and social anxiety. Our findings suggest that the 8-month physical education program intervention is effective for increasing levels of physical activity. Changes in these activities may require more intensive behavioural interventions in children or upstream interventions at the family and societal level, as well as at the school environment level. These findings have relevance for researchers, policy makers, public health practitioners, and doctors who are involved in health promotion, policy making, and commissioning services.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.K. and S.S.; methodology, I.K.; software, R.A.; validation, G.C.; formal analysis, K.Z.; investigation, K.Z.; resources, I.K.; data curation, G.C.; writing—original draft preparation, I.K.; writing—review and editing, S.S.; visualization, G.C.; supervision, R.A.; project administration, R.A.; funding acquisition, K.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. The time and place of the study, with the consent of the parents of the participants, were agreed upon in advance with the school administration. This study was approved by the research ethics committee of Kaunas University of Technology, Institute of Social Science and Humanity (Protocol No V19-1253-03).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Are we getting lazier? -Aaryan, 9, Timber Ridge

Dear Aaryan,

We cats have a reputation for being lazy. We sleep a lot. But the truth is when I got your question, I didn’t know much about laziness. So, I decided to talk about it with a couple of psychologists here at Washington State University.

My first stop was the Psychology of Physical Activity Lab. That’s where I met up with my friend, Professor Anne E. Cox.

Cox said that when she was playing college basketball, she started to struggle with feeling motivated to practice. It actually sparked a few questions, like: What makes people choose what they do or don’t do?

“From what I know about motivation, laziness has to be rewarding,” Cox said. “We only do things that reward us in some way. There is often an immediate satisfaction to relaxing, watching TV, or whatever it may be.”

I also found out some of the latest research suggests that while humans aren’t necessarily getting lazier, they do tend to sit more than they did in the past.

The thing is that the human body actually likes to move around. In fact, Cox said that humans want to move from the time they are born. Just think about the way babies roll on the floor, she adds.

“The more you move your body, the more your body wants to move,” she said.

After talking with Cox, I decided to move on over to my friend Craig Parks’ office. He’s also a psychology professor here at WSU.

“I’m not so sure we’ve gotten lazier so much as we’ve simplified tasks that used to be laborious,” he said. “So, we don’t have to expend as much energy as people in even the recent past did.”

It would have been particularly important for early humans to save their energy to survive. It might have looked lazy, but it was actually smart in case they needed to walk long distances to find dinner.

But now technology and new inventions have made it easier for humans to do work and do it faster, leaving them with more free time.

“I suppose we could fill the time with more work, but why?” Parks said. “A lot of people believe that humans are naturally oriented toward ease rather than effort, so the notion of extra work would not be appealing.”

And if it doesn’t sound appealing, perhaps it might be helpful to find, well, some motivation.

Cox explained that sometimes people feel motivated to do physical activity because it’s fun, feels good, or it can be done with friends. Kids are especially great at summoning this kind of motivation. It’s what psychologists call intrinsic motivation. Then there’s external motivation that comes from things like wanting to change your body. But Cox said their data shows it’s the intrinsic motivation that works best.

“It’s just such a surefire equation,” she adds. “That’s why I love science because we can predict this.”

There’s plenty we can explore, learn, and discover if only we are motivated to do so. And maybe just after a quick catnap.

Dr. Universe

Got a science question?  E-mail Dr. Wendy Sue Universe at [email protected] . Ask Dr. Universe is a science-education project from Washington State University.

• Pete Charrette

Why Is Physical Education Important? 10 Powerful Reasons We Need PE In Our Schools Today

According to the CDC, children 6 to 17 years old should do 60 minutes or more of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity every day. The tragic reality is that less than 25% of kids follow those guidelines. Many children are extremely inactive and do not participate in any extracurricular activities. What would happen if our students were no longer granted access to quality physical education ?

Participating in a high-quality PE program may provide numerous benefits for both middle and high school students, perhaps more than any other subject. Physical education  is critical to our health, well-being, and overall development. Unfortunately, it is not always understood by everyone. The fact is that we, as educators, must be our students’ and others’ own strongest advocates. We must identify and promote the unique benefits of physical education  to all members of our community. Here are ten of the many reasons why physical education is so important :

Physical Education...

1. encourages physical activity for life.

Regular exercise and movement are required for optimum health in our lives. A physical education class is the ideal setting for instilling healthy habits and acquiring an understanding of one's own fitness and mobility abilities. Daily physical education is an essential component of a complete educational program. It encourages children to be physically active and develop the abilities and confidence they need to be active throughout their lives, which is beneficial for them both physically and emotionally.

Keeping active for life as a result of a quality PE program directly correlates with Shape America's Standard 4 : Develops personal skills, identifies personal benefits of movement, and chooses to engage in physical activity.

Rationale : Through learning experiences in physical education, the student develops an understanding of how movement is personally beneficial and subsequently chooses to participate in physical activities that are personally meaningful (e.g., activities that offer social interaction, cultural connection, exploration, choice, self-expression, appropriate levels of challenge, and added health benefits). A student's personal development can be acquired early and maintained for a lifetime.

National Physical Education Standards are used under license from SHAPE America. © 2024, SHAPE America, https://www.shapeamerica.org/ . All rights reserved.

For in-depth exploration of the physiological changes that occur during exercise, check out my article:

  What Happens to My Body When I Exercise? A Physical Educator's Guide .

2. Helps prevent sickness and disease

Regular exercise can not only improve your physical health, but it may also help you avoid illness and disease. Physical activity has been linked to a strengthened immune system, which makes us less likely to get sick. It also aids in the reduction of stress, improvement of mental health, weight management, and overall energy levels. And since PE classes are a great way to get people moving, they can play a big role in keeping our students healthy.

Additionally, regular physical education helps manage chronic conditions like diabetes and heart disease. By incorporating cardiovascular activities , PE classes improve students' physical stamina and promote a higher quality of life. These healthy habits, formed during formative years, often extend into adulthood, offering lifelong health benefits and aiding in disease prevention. Thus, maintaining physical education in school is crucial for cultivating a healthier future generation.

Check out the following article on my blog to see 8 health habits students can develop now that will instill lifetime benefits:   Healthy Habits for Students: Teaching SELF CARE for Lifelong Wellness .

3. Provides an outlet for creativity and self-expression

PE gives young people the opportunity to express themselves in a different way than they do in the classroom. They can let loose, have fun, and be creative without having to worry about grades or competition.   PE is a great outlet for kids who may not be as academically inclined as their peers. It allows them to still feel like they're part of the class and gives them a chance to show their personality.

Physical education also provides an outlet for kids who are shy or introverted. It's a great way for them to get out of their shell and interact with other kids in a non-threatening environment. It may be a wonderful opportunity for kids to have some fun, discover their talents, and just be themselves.

Do you need some great ideas for engaging students with physical education stations? Check out this article:   PE Stations: 15 Fun Ideas for Active Engagement in Elementary Physical Education Classes .

4. Develops cooperation and teamwork

Physical education helps students develop social skills and the ability to work cooperatively and effectively with others. In PE, students learn how to share, take turns, and cooperate with classmates to accomplish a common goal. These skills are essential for success in school and later on, in the workplace. It can also help a student develop teamwork skills by teaching them how to communicate effectively, set goals, and problem-solve as a team. These skills are essential for success in any endeavor.

Developing a cooperative, collaborative attitude is crucial for meeting Shape America's Standard 3 : Develops social skills through movement.

Rationale: Through learning experiences in physical education, students develop the social skills necessary to exhibit empathy and respect for others and foster and maintain relationships. In addition, students develop skills for communication, leadership, cultural awareness, and conflict resolution in a variety of physical activity settings. The capacity to respect oneself and others may be extended to all aspects of a child's or adolescent's life.

Great character makes cooperative and team-oriented students. Check out this article that delves into the world of character education within the physical education setting :

Cultivating Positive Character Traits for Students in Physical Education: Shaping Tomorrow's Leaders .

5. Builds self-confidence

Physical education classes help to develop self-assurance and determination in children. It can help to boost confidence, as they see themselves achieving their goals and improving their abilities. A student's confidence can be greatly enhanced if they improve their fitness level or acquire new movement skills. They also learn how to cooperate with others and handle winning and losing gracefully. These are all vital abilities for youngsters who compete in outside individual and team sports.

Self-confidence is highlighted when a young person learns a new skill or movement in a PE class. They can then apply that knowledge to be more self-assured in a game or performance-based sports setting. Moreover, this newfound confidence can spill over into other areas of their lives, enhancing their willingness to take on new challenges and participate in activities that were previously outside their comfort zones. By fostering a positive self-image and an attitude of resilience, physical education helps mold students into empowered individuals who feel capable of navigating various aspects of their lives.

Students love challenges which help boost their self-confidence! Check out this blog post that examines valuable insights on creating, implementing, and assessing skill-based challenge activities:

Skill-Based Activity Challenges in PE: Practical, Self-Guided Activities for Elevated PE

6. Provides opportunities for personal goal-setting

One of the most outstanding features of PE is the opportunity it provides students to create individual goals and self-discipline. This could be anything from improving their fitness levels to learning a new sport or perfecting a particular skill set. Having something to aim for gives children a real sense of purpose and motivation in PE, which can carry over into other areas of their lives.

Setting goals also helps children to track their progress and see how far they've come. This can be a great source of pride and satisfaction. Teachers can help students establish goals for themselves, which is an excellent approach to motivate them to reach Shape America's Standard 2 which highlights this PE concept: Applies knowledge related to movement and fitness concepts.

Rationale :   Through learning experiences in physical education, the student uses their knowledge of movement concepts , tactics, and strategies across a variety of environments. This knowledge helps the student become a more versatile and efficient mover. Additionally, the student applies knowledge of health-related and skill-related fitness to enhance their overall well-being.

A well-constructed Physical Education Exit Checklist can play a crucial role in helping students assess their PE performance .The following article delves into the different components of such a checklist, how it promotes self-assessment, self-improvement, and why it's an essential tool in the modern PE environment: Enhancing Self-Reflection in Physical Education: The PE Exit Checklist Approach.

7. Helps reduce stress and anxiety

PE can be the perfect outlet to reduce stress and anxiety for young people. When kids are allowed to be active and move their bodies at school, it becomes a natural body and mind energizer that makes the rest of the day far more enjoyable. According to recent research, physical education may play an important role in lowering cortisol levels, which is linked to stress. Physical activity may help to improve mood and emotional stability. Regular physical exercise can also aid in the prevention of anxiety disorders. These anti-stress benefits, in the end, assist children and adolescents to become better students.

Furthermore, engaging in physical activities can serve as a constructive distraction, allowing students to break away from the daily pressures of academics and social interactions. This mental break is crucial for emotional rejuvenation, as it provides an opportunity to clear the mind, leading to increased concentration and improved overall mental health. The supportive environment of PE classes also promotes social interaction and teamwork, which are essential for developing coping mechanisms and a sense of belonging, further helping to alleviate feelings of stress and anxiety.

Are you ever stuck in a classroom for the day or know teachers that could use some GREAT Brain Breaks and Brain Boosts to recharge their students minds and bodies? Check out this blog :

Energizing Education: The Power of Brain Breaks in the Classroom; Includes 12 Practical Activities

8. Increases personal fitness and motor skill development

Physical education is a prime outlet for kids and adolescents to intentionally develop both their health and skill-related components of fitness. Students who participate in regular physical activity can get a lot out of their PE lessons . This is accomplished through repetition, practice, and creative movement situations. They may learn more about their bodies and how to use them appropriately in a variety of settings.

PE is a broad discipline that includes numerous options for students to participate in team and individual sports, dance, and gymnastics. A skill acquired early in life may be transferred to other similar skills or activities and put to use for the remainder of one's life, resulting in better health as an adult.

The physical benefits of developing personal fitness and motor skills are directly linked to Shape America's Standard 1: Develops a variety of motor skills.

Rationale : Through learning experiences in physical education, the student develops motor skills across a variety of environments. Motor skills are a foundational part of child development and support the movements of everyday life. The development of motor skills contributes to an individual’s physical literacy journey. Physical education class may be the only opportunity for younger individuals to learn a variety of motor skills and move their bodies in a meaningful way.

Learn how school physical education can combat childhood obesity in the following article. It offers strategies, insights, and personal experiences to guide you in creating a PE program that truly impacts student health and well-being :

Physical Education and Childhood Obesity: Empowering a Healthier Generation

9. Strengthens relationships with others

Physical education is not only about enhancing one's physical capabilities and motor skills. It's also about teaching individuals to collaborate and develop leadership skills. Students are frequently forced to work together as part of their PE lessons to complete assigned activities or objectives. This allows them to strengthen relationships with their classmates. In some cases, these relationships can last a lifetime. PE can also help to build communication skills and teach students how to better manage conflict. All of these factors contribute to the development of strong, healthy relationships with others.

Moreover, through group activities and team sports, PE classes provide an excellent platform for students to interact in a structured yet relaxed environment. This setting encourages them to understand and appreciate diverse perspectives, fostering empathy and mutual respect among peers. Such interactions not only enhance teamwork skills but also help in building a supportive community within the school. These social connections are vital for personal growth and contribute significantly to a student's emotional and social development.

  Conflict resolution in physical education is an essential part of a PE teacher's role. Learn how to help students work through issues using the RESOLVE method. Click below for the article : Conflict Resolution in PE: A Teacher's Guide to Problem-Solving Using the RESOLVE Method .

10. Boosts academic learning

Numerous studies have demonstrated a strong correlation between physical activity and academic achievement. Physical education plays a crucial role in enhancing concentration, attention, and memory, while also alleviating stress and fatigue. These benefits collectively contribute to better grades and higher test scores for students. Moreover, engaging in physical activity increases blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain, which in turn improves cognitive functions. PE also fosters the development of executive functioning skills, including planning, organizing, and multitasking, which are essential for academic success.

Additionally, physical education significantly enhances students’ energy levels and mood, which are critical for effective learning. The increased production of endorphins triggered by physical activity not only uplifts mood but also boosts energy, making students more alert and receptive in the classroom. This positive shift in mood and energy facilitates easier focus and absorption of new information, thereby enhancing overall academic learning.

Discover the transformative power of word walls in physical education as the following blog post explores practical tips and strategies for their effective use. Unlock new avenues for engagement and learning with innovative approaches tailored to enhance your PE curriculum .

PE Word Walls: Engaging Strategies for Active Learning in Physical Education

Final Thoughts

Physical education is an important part of a student's overall education. It provides opportunities for students to improve their physical fitness and motor skills, while also developing teamwork skills and relationships with others. PE can also boost their academic performance by improving focus, concentration, and energy levels.

All of these benefits make PE an essential part of the educational experience for students of all ages. Physical education is an important part of a well-rounded education and should be required in all schools. So let's do our part to promote physical education in schools and keep our students strong in body and mind!

Do you think PE should be a mandatory part of the educational curriculum? Why or why not? Share your thoughts in the comments below!

Video- Why Physical Education?

Check out Pete's video entitled Why Physical Education? 10 Reasons for and 6 Steps to Advocate.

FREE advocacy bundle

Need some graphics to advocate for your physical education program? Download this FREE visual packet to create wall posters or post them on your gym or school bulletin board!!

Need More Visual Resources for Your Learning Area?

Teaching physical education can be difficult. There are so many different things to cover, and it's hard to know what is the most important. I can help you make teaching PE simpler with engaging, student-friendly graphics that you may utilize on your gym wall or via a monitor. Visual aids can assist make physical education instruction much more simple. They break down complex topics into easy-to-understand visuals that will engage your students and help them learn.

If you're looking for high-quality visuals to help you teach PE and health, go with the Cap'n Pete's Top Physical Education Posters - 25 Set Super Bundle.

You can download the bundle (or individual resources) from either of the following platforms: Cap'n Pete's Power PE Website or Teachers Pay Teachers- Cap'n Pete's TPT Store

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The Importance of Physical Education in Schools

Physical education is a class that is designed to help students improve their physical health and well-being. Students can expect to participate in various activities such as team sports, individual sports, dance, and fitness activities.

Physical education has been shown to be an essential part of a student’s education. It helps students to stay healthy, learn teamwork skills, and have fun. In addition, physical education can also help students maintain a healthy weight and reduce the risk of obesity.

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Importance of Physical Education Classes

Physical education is an important part of a student’s education because it helps them to stay healthy and learn teamwork skills. In addition, physical education can help students maintain a healthy weight and develop lifelong physical activity habits. Schools need to provide physical education classes so that all students have the opportunity to benefit from these positive outcomes.

Physical education classes allow students to be active and participate in enjoyable activities. When students are engaged in physical activity, they are more likely to continue being physically active throughout their lives. In addition, physical activity has been shown to affect academic performance positively. One study found that physically active students had better grades and were more likely to graduate from high school than students who were not physically active.

Physical education classes can also help students develop teamwork skills. Working together in team sports can teach students how to cooperate with others and how to resolve conflicts. These skills are important in all aspects of life, including the workplace. In addition, participating in physical activity can help students to develop social skills and make friends.

Finally, physical education classes can help students to maintain a healthy weight. Obesity is a growing problem in the Philippines, and schools must do everything possible to help students maintain a healthy weight. Physical activity can help students burn calories and build muscle, which is essential for maintaining a healthy weight.

Thus, it is evident that school physical education classes offer students many benefits. These classes help students to stay healthy, make friends, develop teamwork skills, and maintain a healthy weight. All of these factors are important for leading a successful life. Therefore, schools must provide physical education classes for all students.

Tips for Getting the Most Out of Your Physical Education Class

1. Get involved. Participate in all the activities and exercises. This will help you get the most out of the class.

2. Stay focused. Pay attention to the instructor and follow their instructions. This will help you stay safe and get the most out of the class.

3. Stay active. Make sure to move around and participate in all the activities. This will help improve your physical health and well-being.

4. Have fun! Physical education classes should be enjoyable. If you are not having fun, talk to the instructor about ways to make the class more enjoyable for you.

Physical education classes are important for students of all ages. These classes can help improve students’ physical health, well-being, and fitness levels. By participating in physical education classes, students will be better prepared to lead active and healthy lives.

The Importance of Physical Activity Outside of School

Regular physical activity is important for children and adolescents, regardless of weight. It helps to maintain a healthy weight, reduces the risk of developing chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, and diabetes, and improves mental health and mood. In addition, physical activity can help to prevent injuries.

How to Make Time for Physical Activity in Your Busy Schedule 

Making time for physical activity in your busy schedule can be challenging, but finding ways to fit it in is important. Try to schedule your physical activity at the same time each day, so it becomes a habit. If that’s not possible, try to break up your physical activity into smaller chunks throughout the day. Here are a few tips to help you make time for physical activity:

• Commit yourself and stick to it.
• Find an activity that you enjoy and stick with it.
• Find a friend or family member to do physical activity with you.
• Schedule your physical activity into your daily planner or calendar.
• Put a reminder on your phone or computer to be active.

Physical education has many benefits, and schools need to offer this type of program. Physical education helps children stay healthy and fit, teaches teamwork skills, and can improve academic performance. If your child is not currently enrolled in a physical education class, consider finding a program they can participate in. It is an integral part of a well-rounded education and can help your child in many ways.

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How to Cite this Article

Llego, M. A. (2022, August 25). The Importance of Physical Education in Schools. TeacherPH. Retrieved August 25, 2022 from, https://www.teacherph.com/importance-physical-education-schools/

Mark Anthony Llego

Mark Anthony Llego, a visionary from the Philippines, founded TeacherPH in October 2014 with a mission to transform the educational landscape. His platform has empowered thousands of Filipino teachers, providing them with crucial resources and a space for meaningful idea exchange, ultimately enhancing their instructional and supervisory capabilities. TeacherPH's influence extends far beyond its origins. Mark's insightful articles on education have garnered international attention, featuring on respected U.S. educational websites. Moreover, his work has become a valuable reference for researchers, contributing to the academic discourse on education.

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• Quantum Computing

In the age of rapid technological advancements, our lives have been significantly transformed, offering conveniences beyond the imagination of previous generations. While these innovations present numerous benefits, they also pose a unique set of challenges, most notably, the concern that they might be fostering lazy among humans. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the ways technology potentially contributes to different forms of human lazy – physical, cognitive, social, and beyond.

Promoting Physical Inactivity

The rise of technology has brought about a significant shift in our lifestyle patterns, most notably, an increase in physical inactivity. Traditionally, everyday tasks like commuting, household chores, shopping, and even leisure activities involved a certain level of physical effort. However, the advent of smart appliances, electric vehicles, and e-commerce has replaced physical labor with digital convenience. We have vacuum cleaners that navigate themselves, drones that deliver packages, and smart home systems that control everything from lighting to temperature with a simple voice command. Consequently, the level of physical exertion, once required in our daily routines, has considerably reduced, promoting a sedentary lifestyle. Studies link this decline in physical activity to increased obesity rates and related health issues such as heart disease and diabetes.

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Digital Overreliance and Cognitive lazy

Technology has also significantly impacted our mental activity, primarily due to our overreliance on digital tools for basic cognitive tasks. In the era before smartphones, tasks such as remembering phone numbers, birthdays, or directions were a part of our everyday mental exercise. Now, digital calendars, GPS systems , and contact lists have assumed these roles. As a result, our memory and attention skills are not exercised as much, which could lead to cognitive decline over time. We have started to rely heavily on digital assistance even for simple tasks like calculations, spelling, or setting reminders, thereby encouraging a certain level of mental lazy.

Reading and Research in the Digital Age Technology Makes Us Lazy

When it comes to reading and research, technology has significantly altered our behavior, often encouraging a form of intellectual lazy. In the past, conducting research meant spending hours in libraries, combing through books, journals, and archives. It required patience, perseverance, and intellectual rigor. The digital age, however, offers information at our fingertips through search engines and online databases. While the ease of accessibility is beneficial, it also fosters a ‘quick-fix’ mentality. People tend to skim over content instead of engaging in deep reading, accept information at face value instead of critically analyzing it, and lose the patience for extensive research. Such practices could potentially affect our intellectual depth and commitment to scholarly pursuits.

Technology’s Impact on Social Interactions

The proliferation of technology has also dramatically influenced our social lives, fostering a form of social lazy. Social media platforms and instant messaging apps have replaced a significant portion of our face-to-face interactions. While these tools connect us with individuals worldwide and offer new forms of interaction, they also lead to reduced physical socialization. We often prefer texting over meeting in person, and scrolling through social feeds over active participation in social events. This shift towards digital communication might cause us to lose out on the richness of in-person interactions, leading to a superficiality that could be termed social lazy.

The Effect on Problem-Solving Skills

Another area where technology potentially contributes to lazy is problem-solving. Before the influx of tech-based solutions, humans relied on their creativity, resourcefulness, and critical thinking to tackle challenges. Today, however, our first instinct is often to turn to an app or a software solution for our problems. We look for immediate answers on search engines rather than exploring solutions ourselves, and we use apps to manage our time, finances, health, and more. This increasing dependency on technology can stifle our inherent problem-solving skills and initiative, leading to a form of solution-oriented lazy.

It’s important to remember, though, that technology is a tool, and its impacts largely depend on how we utilize it. While technology can make tasks easier and more efficient, excessive reliance and misuse can lead to negative effects, including lazy.

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Impacts on Learning and Skill Acquisition

The sphere of education and skill acquisition is another area where technology’s convenience can inadvertently foster lazy. With the advent of online tutorials, digital classrooms, and AI-powered tutors, learning new skills or acquiring knowledge has never been easier. However, the ease and speed of learning can sometimes lead to a shallow understanding of subjects. Without the need to delve deep, wrestle with complex concepts, or engage in exhaustive research, learners may settle for surface-level comprehension. This approach may impede the cultivation of analytical skills, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities.

Diminishing Effort in Personal Care

Advancements in technology have also extended into the realm of personal care, often reducing the effort we invest in maintaining our physical wellbeing. Digital health trackers , diet apps, and online fitness tutorials offer us streamlined ways to stay healthy. While they provide valuable services, an overreliance on them can result in us being less actively involved in understanding our health and wellbeing. Instead of listening to our bodies or seeking professional medical advice when needed, we might depend too heavily on what our apps tell us, cultivating a form of health-related lazy.

Desensitization to the Environment

In an era where virtual reality can replicate natural experiences and indoor technology can simulate outdoor climates, we may become increasingly disconnected from our environment. The ease with which we can control our surroundings might lead us to become less adaptive and more complacent. This can foster a form of environmental lazy, where we fail to actively engage with our environment or respond adequately to changes in it.

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Online Activism vs. Real-World Action

The rise of digital platforms has given birth to a new form of activism – often termed ‘slacktivism’. While technology allows us to spread awareness, sign petitions, and donate with a click, it might also decrease the likelihood of taking concrete action in the real world. This easy, low-effort form of activism can lead to a decline in active participation in societal issues, thus fostering a sort of civic lazy.

These examples further illuminate how technology, while making life easier, can also foster different forms of lazy. However, it’s important to remember that the key lies in our approach to technology, not the technology itself. By adopting a balanced approach – one that involves deep and active learning, conscious engagement with personal health, active involvement with our environment, and real-world participation in societal issues – we can mitigate the risk of falling into the trap of lazy.

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So, how can we circumnavigate these issues?  

Striking a balance is key. Promoting physical activities and integrating them into our routines can counteract the sedentary lifestyle that technology often promotes. Balancing digital learning methods with traditional ones can help retain our critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Emphasizing the value of face-to-face interactions and utilizing technology to enhance these experiences, rather than replace them, can foster deeper social connections.

Technology, in its many manifestations, does indeed have the potential to foster lazy. Yet, it’s crucial to remember that these tools are not inherently detrimental. They are, after all, just tools – their impact lies significantly in how we choose to use them. Striking a balance between digital convenience and active effort is key. We can embrace the benefits technology offers while consciously avoiding its potential pitfalls. By fostering active learning, encouraging physical activity, promoting in-person social interactions, and engaging proactively with our environment, we can ensure that technology serves as a catalyst for progress and not an enabler of complacency.

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