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How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

Writing a research paper is both an art and a skill, and knowing how to write the methods section of a research paper is the first crucial step in mastering scientific writing. If, like the majority of early career researchers, you believe that the methods section is the simplest to write and needs little in the way of careful consideration or thought, this article will help you understand it is not 1 .

We have all probably asked our supervisors, coworkers, or search engines “ how to write a methods section of a research paper ” at some point in our scientific careers, so you are not alone if that’s how you ended up here. Even for seasoned researchers, selecting what to include in the methods section from a wealth of experimental information can occasionally be a source of distress and perplexity.

Additionally, journal specifications, in some cases, may make it more of a requirement rather than a choice to provide a selective yet descriptive account of the experimental procedure. Hence, knowing these nuances of how to write the methods section of a research paper is critical to its success. The methods section of the research paper is not supposed to be a detailed heavy, dull section that some researchers tend to write; rather, it should be the central component of the study that justifies the validity and reliability of the research.

Are you still unsure of how the methods section of a research paper forms the basis of every investigation? Consider the last article you read but ignore the methods section and concentrate on the other parts of the paper . Now think whether you could repeat the study and be sure of the credibility of the findings despite knowing the literature review and even having the data in front of you. You have the answer!

Having established the importance of the methods section , the next question is how to write the methods section of a research paper that unifies the overall study. The purpose of the methods section , which was earlier called as Materials and Methods , is to describe how the authors went about answering the “research question” at hand. Here, the objective is to tell a coherent story that gives a detailed account of how the study was conducted, the rationale behind specific experimental procedures, the experimental setup, objects (variables) involved, the research protocol employed, tools utilized to measure, calculations and measurements, and the analysis of the collected data 2 .

In this article, we will take a deep dive into this topic and provide a detailed overview of how to write the methods section of a research paper . For the sake of clarity, we have separated the subject into various sections with corresponding subheadings.

Table of Contents

What is the methods section of a research paper ?

The methods section is a fundamental section of any paper since it typically discusses the ‘ what ’, ‘ how ’, ‘ which ’, and ‘ why ’ of the study, which is necessary to arrive at the final conclusions. In a research article, the introduction, which serves to set the foundation for comprehending the background and results is usually followed by the methods section, which precedes the result and discussion sections. The methods section must explicitly state what was done, how it was done, which equipment, tools and techniques were utilized, how were the measurements/calculations taken, and why specific research protocols, software, and analytical methods were employed.

Why is the methods section important?

The primary goal of the methods section is to provide pertinent details about the experimental approach so that the reader may put the results in perspective and, if necessary, replicate the findings 3 . This section offers readers the chance to evaluate the reliability and validity of any study. In short, it also serves as the study’s blueprint, assisting researchers who might be unsure about any other portion in establishing the study’s context and validity. The methods plays a rather crucial role in determining the fate of the article; an incomplete and unreliable methods section can frequently result in early rejections and may lead to numerous rounds of modifications during the publication process. This means that the reviewers also often use methods section to assess the reliability and validity of the research protocol and the data analysis employed to address the research topic. In other words, the purpose of the methods section is to demonstrate the research acumen and subject-matter expertise of the author(s) in their field.

Structure of methods section of a research paper

Similar to the research paper, the methods section also follows a defined structure; this may be dictated by the guidelines of a specific journal or can be presented in a chronological or thematic manner based on the study type. When writing the methods section , authors should keep in mind that they are telling a story about how the research was conducted. They should only report relevant information to avoid confusing the reader and include details that would aid in connecting various aspects of the entire research activity together. It is generally advisable to present experiments in the order in which they were conducted. This facilitates the logical flow of the research and allows readers to follow the progression of the study design.

It is also essential to clearly state the rationale behind each experiment and how the findings of earlier experiments informed the design or interpretation of later experiments. This allows the readers to understand the overall purpose of the study design and the significance of each experiment within that context. However, depending on the particular research question and method, it may make sense to present information in a different order; therefore, authors must select the best structure and strategy for their individual studies.

In cases where there is a lot of information, divide the sections into subheadings to cover the pertinent details. If the journal guidelines pose restrictions on the word limit , additional important information can be supplied in the supplementary files. A simple rule of thumb for sectioning the method section is to begin by explaining the methodological approach ( what was done ), describing the data collection methods ( how it was done ), providing the analysis method ( how the data was analyzed ), and explaining the rationale for choosing the methodological strategy. This is described in detail in the upcoming sections.

How to write the methods section of a research paper

Contrary to widespread assumption, the methods section of a research paper should be prepared once the study is complete to prevent missing any key parameter. Hence, please make sure that all relevant experiments are done before you start writing a methods section . The next step for authors is to look up any applicable academic style manuals or journal-specific standards to ensure that the methods section is formatted correctly. The methods section of a research paper typically constitutes materials and methods; while writing this section, authors usually arrange the information under each category.

The materials category describes the samples, materials, treatments, and instruments, while experimental design, sample preparation, data collection, and data analysis are a part of the method category. According to the nature of the study, authors should include additional subsections within the methods section, such as ethical considerations like the declaration of Helsinki (for studies involving human subjects), demographic information of the participants, and any other crucial information that can affect the output of the study. Simply put, the methods section has two major components: content and format. Here is an easy checklist for you to consider if you are struggling with how to write the methods section of a research paper .

Explain the research design, subjects, and sample details
Include information on inclusion and exclusion criteria
Mention ethical or any other permission required for the study
Include information about materials, experimental setup, tools, and software
Add details of data collection and analysis methods
Incorporate how research biases were avoided or confounding variables were controlled
Evaluate and justify the experimental procedure selected to address the research question
Provide precise and clear details of each experiment
Flowcharts, infographics, or tables can be used to present complex information
Use past tense to show that the experiments have been done
Follow academic style guides (such as APA or MLA ) to structure the content
Citations should be included as per standard protocols in the field

Now that you know how to write the methods section of a research paper , let’s address another challenge researchers face while writing the methods section —what to include in the methods section . How much information is too much is not always obvious when it comes to trying to include data in the methods section of a paper. In the next section, we examine this issue and explore potential solutions.

What to include in the methods section of a research paper

The technical nature of the methods section occasionally makes it harder to present the information clearly and concisely while staying within the study context. Many young researchers tend to veer off subject significantly, and they frequently commit the sin of becoming bogged down in itty bitty details, making the text harder to read and impairing its overall flow. However, the best way to write the methods section is to start with crucial components of the experiments. If you have trouble deciding which elements are essential, think about leaving out those that would make it more challenging to comprehend the context or replicate the results. The top-down approach helps to ensure all relevant information is incorporated and vital information is not lost in technicalities. Next, remember to add details that are significant to assess the validity and reliability of the study. Here is a simple checklist for you to follow ( bonus tip: you can also make a checklist for your own study to avoid missing any critical information while writing the methods section ).

Structuring the methods section : Authors should diligently follow journal guidelines and adhere to the specific author instructions provided when writing the methods section . Journals typically have specific guidelines for formatting the methods section ; for example, Frontiers in Plant Sciences advises arranging the materials and methods section by subheading and citing relevant literature. There are several standardized checklists available for different study types in the biomedical field, including CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) for randomized clinical trials, PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis) for systematic reviews and meta-analysis, and STROBE (STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology) for cohort, case-control, cross-sectional studies. Before starting the methods section , check the checklist available in your field that can function as a guide.
Organizing different sections to tell a story : Once you are sure of the format required for structuring the methods section , the next is to present the sections in a logical manner; as mentioned earlier, the sections can be organized according to the chronology or themes. In the chronological arrangement, you should discuss the methods in accordance with how the experiments were carried out. An example of the method section of a research paper of an animal study should first ideally include information about the species, weight, sex, strain, and age. Next, the number of animals, their initial conditions, and their living and housing conditions should also be mentioned. Second, how the groups are assigned and the intervention (drug treatment, stress, or other) given to each group, and finally, the details of tools and techniques used to measure, collect, and analyze the data. Experiments involving animal or human subjects should additionally state an ethics approval statement. It is best to arrange the section using the thematic approach when discussing distinct experiments not following a sequential order.
Define and explain the objects and procedure: Experimental procedure should clearly be stated in the methods section . Samples, necessary preparations (samples, treatment, and drug), and methods for manipulation need to be included. All variables (control, dependent, independent, and confounding) must be clearly defined, particularly if the confounding variables can affect the outcome of the study.
Match the order of the methods section with the order of results: Though not mandatory, organizing the manuscript in a logical and coherent manner can improve the readability and clarity of the paper. This can be done by following a consistent structure throughout the manuscript; readers can easily navigate through the different sections and understand the methods and results in relation to each other. Using experiment names as headings for both the methods and results sections can also make it simpler for readers to locate specific information and corroborate it if needed.
Relevant information must always be included: The methods section should have information on all experiments conducted and their details clearly mentioned. Ask the journal whether there is a way to offer more information in the supplemental files or external repositories if your target journal has strict word limitations. For example, Nature communications encourages authors to deposit their step-by-step protocols in an open-resource depository, Protocol Exchange which allows the protocols to be linked with the manuscript upon publication. Providing access to detailed protocols also helps to increase the transparency and reproducibility of the research.
It’s all in the details: The methods section should meticulously list all the materials, tools, instruments, and software used for different experiments. Specify the testing equipment on which data was obtained, together with its manufacturer’s information, location, city, and state or any other stimuli used to manipulate the variables. Provide specifics on the research process you employed; if it was a standard protocol, cite previous studies that also used the protocol. Include any protocol modifications that were made, as well as any other factors that were taken into account when planning the study or gathering data. Any new or modified techniques should be explained by the authors. Typically, readers evaluate the reliability and validity of the procedures using the cited literature, and a widely accepted checklist helps to support the credibility of the methodology. Note: Authors should include a statement on sample size estimation (if applicable), which is often missed. It enables the reader to determine how many subjects will be required to detect the expected change in the outcome variables within a given confidence interval.
Write for the audience: While explaining the details in the methods section , authors should be mindful of their target audience, as some of the rationale or assumptions on which specific procedures are based might not always be obvious to the audience, particularly for a general audience. Therefore, when in doubt, the objective of a procedure should be specified either in relation to the research question or to the entire protocol.
Data interpretation and analysis : Information on data processing, statistical testing, levels of significance, and analysis tools and software should be added. Mention if the recommendations and expertise of an experienced statistician were followed. Also, evaluate and justify the preferred statistical method used in the study and its significance.

What NOT to include in the methods section of a research paper

To address “ how to write the methods section of a research paper ”, authors should not only pay careful attention to what to include but also what not to include in the methods section of a research paper . Here is a list of do not’s when writing the methods section :

Do not elaborate on specifics of standard methods/procedures: You should refrain from adding unnecessary details of experiments and practices that are well established and cited previously. Instead, simply cite relevant literature or mention if the manufacturer’s protocol was followed.
Do not add unnecessary details : Do not include minute details of the experimental procedure and materials/instruments used that are not significant for the outcome of the experiment. For example, there is no need to mention the brand name of the water bath used for incubation.
Do not discuss the results: The methods section is not to discuss the results or refer to the tables and figures; save it for the results and discussion section. Also, focus on the methods selected to conduct the study and avoid diverting to other methods or commenting on their pros or cons.
Do not make the section bulky : For extensive methods and protocols, provide the essential details and share the rest of the information in the supplemental files. The writing should be clear yet concise to maintain the flow of the section.

We hope that by this point, you understand how crucial it is to write a thoughtful and precise methods section and the ins and outs of how to write the methods section of a research paper . To restate, the entire purpose of the methods section is to enable others to reproduce the results or verify the research. We sincerely hope that this post has cleared up any confusion and given you a fresh perspective on the methods section .

As a parting gift, we’re leaving you with a handy checklist that will help you understand how to write the methods section of a research paper . Feel free to download this checklist and use or share this with those who you think may benefit from it.

References

Bhattacharya, D. How to write the Methods section of a research paper. Editage Insights, 2018. https://www.editage.com/insights/how-to-write-the-methods-section-of-a-research-paper (2018).
Kallet, R. H. How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper. Respiratory Care 49, 1229–1232 (2004). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447808/
Grindstaff, T. L. & Saliba, S. A. AVOIDING MANUSCRIPT MISTAKES. Int J Sports Phys Ther 7, 518–524 (2012). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3474299/

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

6. The Methodology
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
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Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II. Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE: If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definition, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analysing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that have already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyse the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analysing data, examples of data analysis methods, frequently asked questions about methodology.

Data are the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs secondary data

Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesise existing knowledge, analyse historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary
Secondary

Descriptive vs experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive
Experimental

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Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare them for analysis.

Data can often be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analysed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that were collected:

From open-ended survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies, and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that were collected either:

During an experiment.
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data are collected and analysed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardised and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analysing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyse data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyse the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyse data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyse large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

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Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

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Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

Research design
Data collection procedures
Data analysis methods
Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

Participants should not be subjected to harm.
Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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Language and Grammar Rules for Academic Writing

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Research Methods: A Student's Comprehensive Guide: Fundamentals

Research Approaches
Types of Sources
Accessing Resources
Evaluating Sources
Question Crafting
Search Strategies
Annotated Bibliography
Literature Reviews
Citations This link opens in a new window

Research Methods: Essential Foundations

Key research methods, method match, qualitative methods.

Focus: Understanding the nuances and depth of non-numerical data, offering rich, detailed insights into your research topic.
Common Techniques: Interviews, focus groups, case studies, and content analysis.
Application: Best for exploring new ideas, developing theories, and understanding individual or group experiences in detail.

Quantitative Methods

Focus: Utilizes numerical data and statistical techniques to test hypotheses and draw generalizable conclusions.
Common Techniques: Encompasses surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
Application: Suitable for measuring variables, validating theories, and making data-driven predictions.

Mixed Methods

Focus: Combining qualitative and quantitative data to gain a fuller understanding of a research question.
Common Techniques: Sequential or concurrent use of interviews, surveys, and experiments.
Application: Ideal when research requires both detailed insights and measurable data to draw well-rounded conclusions.

Choosing the right research method is crucial for project success. Your choice should align with your research question, data needs, and study goals. Here’s how to select the best method:

Qualitative Research : Ideal for exploring complex ideas and answering “How?” or “Why?” questions. This approach provides rich, detailed insights through techniques such as interviews and focus groups. It’s great for understanding experiences and developing theories.

Quantitative Research : Best for measuring variables and analyzing numerical data to address “How much?” or “What impact?” questions. This method involves surveys and statistical analysis, making it suitable for testing hypotheses and validating theories.

Mixed Methods : Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches offers a comprehensive analysis. Use this method to explore the “why” behind data or to support qualitative findings with numerical evidence, giving you a fuller perspective on your research question.

Considerations

Research Focus: Determine what you aim to uncover or prove.
Data: Decide if you need detailed narratives or numerical data.
Resources: Evaluate your available time, tools, and data access.
Purpose: Consider whether you are exploring concepts or testing theories.
Student Attitudes Toward Remote Learning : Qualitative methods like interviews provide in-depth personal insights.
Impact of Exercise on Academic Performance : Quantitative methods such as surveys are effective for statistical analysis and identifying trends.
When in doubt, start with your research question. A well-defined question will naturally guide you to the most suitable method, whether it’s qualitative, quantitative, or mixed.

Ethical Principles

Informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding bias.

Ethical Review Boards
Informed Consent: Clearly explain the study's purpose, methods, risks, and benefits to participates. Obtained documented consent, either through written forms or verbal agreements (recorded with permission).
Autonomy: Ensure participates can make their own informed decisions about participating and have the freedom to withdraw at any time without facing consequences.
Minimizing Harm: Design studies to minimize risks and harm. Evaluate potential risks carefully and implement strategies to reduce them.
Maximizing Benefits: Ensure the research provides value and contributes positively to the field of society, with the benefits outweighing any risks.
Fair Selection: Distribute the benefits and burdens of research equitably. Avoid exploiting vulnerable populations or unfairly burdening any group.
Equitable Access: Ensure all participants have equal access to the benefits of the research and avoid discriminatory practices.

What is Informed Consent? Informed Consent is all about making sure participants know exactly what they're getting into before they agree to take part in research. It's about honesty, clarity, and respect.

Key Elements:

Clear Explanation: Participants should understand the purpose of the study, what they'll be asked to do, any possible risks, and the potential benefits. This means explaining everything in simple, straightforward language—no confusing jargon.
Voluntary Participation: Participation must be completely voluntary. That means no pressure to join, and participants can change their minds and leave the study anytime without any consequences.
Understanding: It's crucial that participants truly understand what they're consenting to. They should feel free to ask questions and get clear answers before agreeing to take part.
Written Agreement: Typically, participants will sign a consent form that summarizes the study's details. This form is a record of their agreement to participate.

Significance: Informed consent isn't just a formality—it's about respecting the rights and dignity of those involved in your research. It ensures that everyone is on the same page and that participants feel valued and safe.

For Special Cases: When working with children, non-English speakers, or people with cognitive impairments, extra steps should be taken to ensure they understand and agree to participate. This might include using simpler language, translators, or getting permission from a guardian.

What is Confidentiality? Confidentiality in research is the practice of protecting the private information of participants. It's about ensuring that any personal details shared during the study are kept secure and are not disclosed without permission.

Anonymity v Confidentiality: Anonymity means that even the researcher doesn't know who the participants are, while confidentiality means that the researcher knows but keeps that information private. Both are important, but confidentiality often allows for deeper, more personalized data collection while still protecting participants' privacy.
Data Protection: All personal data, such as names, addresses, and any identifying information, should be stored securely. This could mean using encrypted digital storage or keeping physical records in a locked, safe space. The goal is to prevent unauthorized access to this sensitive information.
Limited Access: Only the research team and necessary personnel should have access to confidential information. It's also essential to clarify with participants who will see their data and in what form.
De-Identification: When presenting or publishing research findings, it's crucial to remove any information that could identify individual participants. This process, known as de-identification, ensures that the data shared publicly cannot be traced back to the participants.
Informed Consent: Participants should be informed upfront about how their data will be used and who will have access to it. They should also be reassured that their privacy will be protected throughout the study.

Significance: Maintaining confidentiality builds trust between researchers and participants. It encourages honest and open communication, which is vital for collecting accurate data. Participants are more likely to share sensitive information if they know their privacy is safeguarded.

Handling Breaches: In the rare case of confidentiality breach, it's important to have a plan in place to address it. This includes promptly notifying participants, taking corrective measures, and ensuring such incidents don't happen again.

What is Bias in Research? Bias in research refers to any influence that unfairly skews the results of a study. It can occur at any stage of the research process, from planning and data collection to analysis and interpretation. Bias can lead to incorrect conclusions, reducing the validity and reliability of your research.

Types of Bias:

For example, if a study only surveys college students about work-life balance, it might not accurately reflect the experience of those in different life stages.
Confirmation Bias: This happens when researchers focus on data that supports their hypothesis while ignoring or downplaying evidence that contradicts it. This can lead to a one-sided interpretation of the results.
For instance, using a survey with leading questions can influence participants to respond in a certain way, distorting the findings.
Rooting Bias: Occurs when only certain results are reported, often because they are more favorable or expected. This can mislead readers and hide the full scope of the research findings.

How to Avoid Bias:

Use Random Sampling: Ensure that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study. Random sampling helps create a more representative sample and reduces selection bias.
Blind or Double-Blind Studies: In a blind study, participants don't know which group they're in (e.g., treatment v control), while in a double-blind study, neither participants nor the researchers know. This method helps prevent both participant and researcher bias.
For example, using the same questionnaire and instructions for all everyone guarantees uniform conditions.
Peer Review & Replication: Have experts review your study to catch potential biases you might have missed. Encourage others to replicate your study to verify accuracy and rule out bias.
Promote Transparency: Clearly outline your methods, limitations, and any potential conflicts of interest. Acknowledging where bias might have crept in, even unintentionally, demonstrates integrity and allows others to account for it when interpreting your findings.

Significance: Avoiding bias is crucial for maintaining the credibility and reliability of your research. Unbiased research provides a more accurate representation of reality, leading to conclusions that can be trusted and built upon by others. It also helps ensure that your findings contribute positively to the broader field of study, rather than perpetuating misinformation.

Pro-Tip: Always question your assumptions. Regularly re-evaluate your methods, seek feedback from peers, and be prepared to adjust your approach to minimize bias. This diligence will help you produce high-quality, trustworthy research.

Ethical Review Board

Ethical Review Boards (ERBs)

Before starting a research project involving human participants, it's crucial to go through an ERB process. ERBs are panels of experts who assess the ethical aspects of your research plan to safeguard participants' rights and well-being.

What Do ERBs Do?

ERBs review your research proposal to verify that it aligns with ethical standards. They focus on aspects like informed consent, risk minimization, and confidentiality. The board ensures that your study is designed to treat participants fairly, without exposing them to necessary harm.

Key Consideration:

Submitting your research to an ERB isn't just a formality; it's a vital step to maintaining the integrity of your work. An ERB's approval signifies that your research meets high ethical standards, which helps build trust in your findings and protects the people who contribute to your study.

Foundations

Learning Objectives

Research methods are fundamental to conducting thorough and credible research. They provide the framework for collecting and analyzing data systematically, helping you build a solid foundation for your findings.

Systematic Approach: Research methods offer a structured way to gather and interpret data, ensuring consistency and repeatability in your research process.
Credibility: By applying well-established methods, you enhance the reliability and validity of your findings, making your results more trustworthy.
Problem-Solving: These methods enable you to address complex questions and generate actionable insights based on your research.
Identify key characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Understand the relevance of selecting appropriate methods for specific research questions.
Apply criteria to choose the right research approach based on research goals.
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Research methods--quantitative, qualitative, and more: overview.

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About Research Methods

This guide provides an overview of research methods, how to choose and use them, and supports and resources at UC Berkeley.

As Patten and Newhart note in the book Understanding Research Methods , "Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the "how" for building systematic knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge through research is by its nature a collective endeavor. Each well-designed study provides evidence that may support, amend, refute, or deepen the understanding of existing knowledge...Decisions are important throughout the practice of research and are designed to help researchers collect evidence that includes the full spectrum of the phenomenon under study, to maintain logical rules, and to mitigate or account for possible sources of bias. In many ways, learning research methods is learning how to see and make these decisions."

The choice of methods varies by discipline, by the kind of phenomenon being studied and the data being used to study it, by the technology available, and more. This guide is an introduction, but if you don't see what you need here, always contact your subject librarian, and/or take a look to see if there's a library research guide that will answer your question.

Suggestions for changes and additions to this guide are welcome!

START HERE: SAGE Research Methods

Without question, the most comprehensive resource available from the library is SAGE Research Methods. HERE IS THE ONLINE GUIDE to this one-stop shopping collection, and some helpful links are below:

SAGE Research Methods
Little Green Books (Quantitative Methods)
Little Blue Books (Qualitative Methods)
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias
Case studies of real research projects
Sample datasets for hands-on practice
Streaming video--see methods come to life
Methodspace- -a community for researchers
SAGE Research Methods Course Mapping

Library Data Services at UC Berkeley

Library Data Services Program and Digital Scholarship Services

The LDSP offers a variety of services and tools ! From this link, check out pages for each of the following topics: discovering data, managing data, collecting data, GIS data, text data mining, publishing data, digital scholarship, open science, and the Research Data Management Program.

Be sure also to check out the visual guide to where to seek assistance on campus with any research question you may have!

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Other Data Services at Berkeley

D-Lab Supports Berkeley faculty, staff, and graduate students with research in data intensive social science, including a wide range of training and workshop offerings Dryad Dryad is a simple self-service tool for researchers to use in publishing their datasets. It provides tools for the effective publication of and access to research data. Geospatial Innovation Facility (GIF) Provides leadership and training across a broad array of integrated mapping technologies on campu Research Data Management A UC Berkeley guide and consulting service for research data management issues

General Research Methods Resources

Here are some general resources for assistance:

Assistance from ICPSR (must create an account to access): Getting Help with Data , and Resources for Students
Wiley Stats Ref for background information on statistics topics
Survey Documentation and Analysis (SDA) . Program for easy web-based analysis of survey data.

Consultants

D-Lab/Data Science Discovery Consultants Request help with your research project from peer consultants.
Research data (RDM) consulting Meet with RDM consultants before designing the data security, storage, and sharing aspects of your qualitative project.
Statistics Department Consulting Services A service in which advanced graduate students, under faculty supervision, are available to consult during specified hours in the Fall and Spring semesters.

Related Resourcex

IRB / CPHS Qualitative research projects with human subjects often require that you go through an ethics review.
OURS (Office of Undergraduate Research and Scholarships) OURS supports undergraduates who want to embark on research projects and assistantships. In particular, check out their "Getting Started in Research" workshops
Sponsored Projects Sponsored projects works with researchers applying for major external grants.
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Last Updated: Sep 6, 2024 8:59 PM
URL: https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/researchmethods

Locations and Hours
UCLA Library
Research Guides
Research Tips and Tools

Advanced Research Methods

Writing the research paper.

What Is Research?
Library Research
Writing a Research Proposal

Before Writing the Paper

Methods, thesis and hypothesis, clarity, precision and academic expression, format your paper, typical problems, a few suggestions, avoid plagiarism.

Presenting the Research Paper

Find a topic.

Try to find a subject that really interests you.
While you explore the topic, narrow or broaden your target and focus on something that gives the most promising results.
Don't choose a huge subject if you have to write a 3 page long paper, and broaden your topic sufficiently if you have to submit at least 25 pages.
Consult your class instructor (and your classmates) about the topic.

Explore the topic.

Find primary and secondary sources in the library.
Read and critically analyse them.
Take notes.
Compile surveys, collect data, gather materials for quantitative analysis (if these are good methods to investigate the topic more deeply).
Come up with new ideas about the topic. Try to formulate your ideas in a few sentences.
Review your notes and other materials and enrich the outline.
Try to estimate how long the individual parts will be.
Do others understand what you want to say?
Do they accept it as new knowledge or relevant and important for a paper?
Do they agree that your thoughts will result in a successful paper?
Qualitative: gives answers on questions (how, why, when, who, what, etc.) by investigating an issue
Quantitative:requires data and the analysis of data as well
the essence, the point of the research paper in one or two sentences.
a statement that can be proved or disproved.
Be specific.
Avoid ambiguity.
Use predominantly the active voice, not the passive.
Deal with one issue in one paragraph.
Be accurate.
Double-check your data, references, citations and statements.

Academic Expression

Don't use familiar style or colloquial/slang expressions.
Write in full sentences.
Check the meaning of the words if you don't know exactly what they mean.
Avoid metaphors.
Almost the rough content of every paragraph.
The order of the various topics in your paper.
On the basis of the outline, start writing a part by planning the content, and then write it down.
Put a visible mark (which you will later delete) where you need to quote a source, and write in the citation when you finish writing that part or a bigger part.
Does the text make sense?
Could you explain what you wanted?
Did you write good sentences?
Is there something missing?
Check the spelling.
Complete the citations, bring them in standard format.

Use the guidelines that your instructor requires (MLA, Chicago, APA, Turabian, etc.).

Adjust margins, spacing, paragraph indentation, place of page numbers, etc.
Standardize the bibliography or footnotes according to the guidelines.

EndNote and EndNote Basic by UCLA Library Last Updated Jul 3, 2024 2402 views this year
Zotero by UCLA Library Last Updated Jul 22, 2024 1446 views this year

(Based on English Composition 2 from Illinois Valley Community College):

Weak organization
Poor support and development of ideas
Weak use of secondary sources
Excessive errors
Stylistic weakness

When collecting materials, selecting research topic, and writing the paper:

Be systematic and organized (e.g. keep your bibliography neat and organized; write your notes in a neat way, so that you can find them later on.
Use your critical thinking ability when you read.
Write down your thoughts (so that you can reconstruct them later).
Stop when you have a really good idea and think about whether you could enlarge it to a whole research paper. If yes, take much longer notes.
When you write down a quotation or summarize somebody else's thoughts in your notes or in the paper, cite the source (i.e. write down the author, title, publication place, year, page number).
If you quote or summarize a thought from the internet, cite the internet source.
Write an outline that is detailed enough to remind you about the content.
Read your paper for yourself or, preferably, somebody else.
When you finish writing, check the spelling;
Use the citation form (MLA, Chicago, or other) that your instructor requires and use it everywhere.

Plagiarism : somebody else's words or ideas presented without citation by an author

Cite your source every time when you quote a part of somebody's work.
Cite your source every time when you summarize a thought from somebody's work.
Cite your source every time when you use a source (quote or summarize) from the Internet.

Consult the Citing Sources research guide for further details.

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Next: Presenting the Research Paper >>
Last Updated: Aug 22, 2024 3:43 PM
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Home » Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methods

Definition:

Research Methods refer to the techniques, procedures, and processes used by researchers to collect , analyze, and interpret data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses. The methods used in research can vary depending on the research questions, the type of data that is being collected, and the research design.

Types of Research Methods

Types of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative research Method

Qualitative research methods are used to collect and analyze non-numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to explore the meaning of phenomena, understand the experiences of individuals, or gain insights into complex social processes. Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, ethnography, and content analysis.

Quantitative Research Method

Quantitative research methods are used to collect and analyze numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to test a hypothesis, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and measure the prevalence of certain phenomena. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.

Mixed Method Research

Mixed Method Research refers to the combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. This approach aims to overcome the limitations of each individual method and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This approach allows researchers to gather both quantitative data, which is often used to test hypotheses and make generalizations about a population, and qualitative data, which provides a more in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals.

Key Differences Between Research Methods

The following Table shows the key differences between Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods

Research Method	Quantitative	Qualitative	Mixed Methods
	To measure and quantify variables	To understand the meaning and complexity of phenomena	To integrate both quantitative and qualitative approaches
	Typically focused on testing hypotheses and determining cause and effect relationships	Typically exploratory and focused on understanding the subjective experiences and perspectives of participants	Can be either, depending on the research design
	Usually involves standardized measures or surveys administered to large samples	Often involves in-depth interviews, observations, or analysis of texts or other forms of data	Usually involves a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods
	Typically involves statistical analysis to identify patterns and relationships in the data	Typically involves thematic analysis or other qualitative methods to identify themes and patterns in the data	Usually involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis
	Can provide precise, objective data that can be generalized to a larger population	Can provide rich, detailed data that can help understand complex phenomena in depth	Can combine the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches
	May not capture the full complexity of phenomena, and may be limited by the quality of the measures used	May be subjective and may not be generalizable to larger populations	Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, and may require specialized skills
Typically focused on testing hypotheses and determining cause-and-effect relationships	Surveys, experiments, correlational studies	Interviews, focus groups, ethnography	Sequential explanatory design, convergent parallel design, explanatory sequential design

Examples of Research Methods

Examples of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative Research Example:

A researcher wants to study the experience of cancer patients during their treatment. They conduct in-depth interviews with patients to gather data on their emotional state, coping mechanisms, and support systems.

Quantitative Research Example:

A company wants to determine the effectiveness of a new advertisement campaign. They survey a large group of people, asking them to rate their awareness of the product and their likelihood of purchasing it.

Mixed Research Example:

A university wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance. They collect both quantitative data (such as test scores) and qualitative data (such as feedback from students and teachers) to get a complete picture of the impact of the new method.

Applications of Research Methods

Research methods are used in various fields to investigate, analyze, and answer research questions. Here are some examples of how research methods are applied in different fields:

Psychology : Research methods are widely used in psychology to study human behavior, emotions, and mental processes. For example, researchers may use experiments, surveys, and observational studies to understand how people behave in different situations, how they respond to different stimuli, and how their brains process information.
Sociology : Sociologists use research methods to study social phenomena, such as social inequality, social change, and social relationships. Researchers may use surveys, interviews, and observational studies to collect data on social attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Medicine : Research methods are essential in medical research to study diseases, test new treatments, and evaluate their effectiveness. Researchers may use clinical trials, case studies, and laboratory experiments to collect data on the efficacy and safety of different medical treatments.
Education : Research methods are used in education to understand how students learn, how teachers teach, and how educational policies affect student outcomes. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on student performance, teacher effectiveness, and educational programs.
Business : Research methods are used in business to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and business strategies. Researchers may use surveys, focus groups, and observational studies to collect data on consumer preferences, market trends, and industry competition.
Environmental science : Research methods are used in environmental science to study the natural world and its ecosystems. Researchers may use field studies, laboratory experiments, and observational studies to collect data on environmental factors, such as air and water quality, and the impact of human activities on the environment.
Political science : Research methods are used in political science to study political systems, institutions, and behavior. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on political attitudes, voting behavior, and the impact of policies on society.

Purpose of Research Methods

Research methods serve several purposes, including:

Identify research problems: Research methods are used to identify research problems or questions that need to be addressed through empirical investigation.
Develop hypotheses: Research methods help researchers develop hypotheses, which are tentative explanations for the observed phenomenon or relationship.
Collect data: Research methods enable researchers to collect data in a systematic and objective way, which is necessary to test hypotheses and draw meaningful conclusions.
Analyze data: Research methods provide tools and techniques for analyzing data, such as statistical analysis, content analysis, and discourse analysis.
Test hypotheses: Research methods allow researchers to test hypotheses by examining the relationships between variables in a systematic and controlled manner.
Draw conclusions : Research methods facilitate the drawing of conclusions based on empirical evidence and help researchers make generalizations about a population based on their sample data.
Enhance understanding: Research methods contribute to the development of knowledge and enhance our understanding of various phenomena and relationships, which can inform policy, practice, and theory.

When to Use Research Methods

Research methods are used when you need to gather information or data to answer a question or to gain insights into a particular phenomenon.

Here are some situations when research methods may be appropriate:

To investigate a problem : Research methods can be used to investigate a problem or a research question in a particular field. This can help in identifying the root cause of the problem and developing solutions.
To gather data: Research methods can be used to collect data on a particular subject. This can be done through surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and more.
To evaluate programs : Research methods can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program, intervention, or policy. This can help in determining whether the program is meeting its goals and objectives.
To explore new areas : Research methods can be used to explore new areas of inquiry or to test new hypotheses. This can help in advancing knowledge in a particular field.
To make informed decisions : Research methods can be used to gather information and data to support informed decision-making. This can be useful in various fields such as healthcare, business, and education.

Advantages of Research Methods

Research methods provide several advantages, including:

Objectivity : Research methods enable researchers to gather data in a systematic and objective manner, minimizing personal biases and subjectivity. This leads to more reliable and valid results.
Replicability : A key advantage of research methods is that they allow for replication of studies by other researchers. This helps to confirm the validity of the findings and ensures that the results are not specific to the particular research team.
Generalizability : Research methods enable researchers to gather data from a representative sample of the population, allowing for generalizability of the findings to a larger population. This increases the external validity of the research.
Precision : Research methods enable researchers to gather data using standardized procedures, ensuring that the data is accurate and precise. This allows researchers to make accurate predictions and draw meaningful conclusions.
Efficiency : Research methods enable researchers to gather data efficiently, saving time and resources. This is especially important when studying large populations or complex phenomena.
Innovation : Research methods enable researchers to develop new techniques and tools for data collection and analysis, leading to innovation and advancement in the field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Future Research – Thesis Guide

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Glossary of Research Terms
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Executive Summary
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Annotated Bibliography
Dealing with Nervousness
Using Visual Aids
Grading Someone Else's Paper
How to Manage Group Projects
Multiple Book Review Essay
Reviewing Collected Essays
About Informed Consent
Writing Field Notes
Writing a Policy Memo
Writing a Research Proposal
Acknowledgements

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) How was the data collected or generated? 2) How was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you choose affects the results and, by extension, how you likely interpreted those results.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and it misappropriates interpretations of findings .
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. Your methodology section of your paper should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure .
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The research method must be appropriate to the objectives of the study . For example, be sure you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring . For any problems that did arise, you must describe the ways in which their impact was minimized or why these problems do not affect the findings in any way that impacts your interpretation of the data.
Often in social science research, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate your methodology. Therefore, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow others to use or replicate the study . This information is particularly important when a new method had been developed or an innovative use of an existing method has been utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation .
The interpretative group is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . This research method allows you to recognize your connection to the subject under study. Because the interpretative group focuses more on subjective knowledge, it requires careful interpretation of variables.

II. Content

An effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods should have a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is unsuited to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors?
Provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of statisics being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate.
Address potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE : Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Don’t provide any background information that doesn’t directly help the reader to understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how it was analyzed. Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. NOTE: An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional approach to doing the method; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall research process. Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose. Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics. Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship . S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

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How to write the methods section of a research paper

Affiliation.

1 Respiratory Care Services, San Francisco General Hospital, NH:GA-2, 1001 Potrero Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA. [email protected]
PMID: 15447808

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study's validity is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done, and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were chosen. The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol, explain how measurements were made and what calculations were performed, and state which statistical tests were done to analyze the data. Once all elements of the methods section are written, subsequent drafts should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and logically as possibly. The description of preparations, measurements, and the protocol should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. Material in each section should be organized by topic from most to least important.

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Writing a scientific paper.

Writing a lab report
INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" methods section

"methods checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

LITERATURE CITED
Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
Peer Review
Presentations
Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

The purpose is to provide enough detail that a competent worker could repeat the experiment. Many of your readers will skip this section because they already know from the Introduction the general methods you used. However careful writing of this section is important because for your results to be of scientific merit they must be reproducible. Otherwise your paper does not represent good science.

Exact technical specifications and quantities and source or method of preparation
Describe equipment used and provide illustrations where relevant.
Chronological presentation (but related methods described together)
Questions about "how" and "how much" are answered for the reader and not left for them to puzzle over
Discuss statistical methods only if unusual or advanced
When a large number of components are used prepare tables for the benefit of the reader
Do not state the action without stating the agent of the action
Describe how the results were generated with sufficient detail so that an independent researcher (working in the same field) could reproduce the results sufficiently to allow validation of the conclusions.
Can the reader assess internal validity (conclusions are supported by the results presented)?
Can the reader assess external validity (conclusions are properly generalized beyond these specific results)?
Has the chosen method been justified?
Are data analysis and statistical approaches justified, with assumptions and biases considered?
Avoid: including results in the Method section; including extraneous details (unnecessary to enable reproducibility or judge validity); treating the method as a chronological history of events; unneeded references to commercial products; references to “proprietary” products or processes unavailable to the reader.
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Campbell Syst Rev
v.17(2); 2021 Jun

Editorial: Types of methods research papers in the journal Campbell Systematic Reviews

Ariel m. aloe.

1 University of Iowa, Iowa City USA

Ruth Garside

2 University of Exeter, Truro UK

Since its beginning in the early 2000s, the Campbell Collaboration has acknowledged the importance that methodology plays in producing systematic reviews. Indeed, the Methods Coordinating Group (CG) was one of the original groups in Campbell, alongside crime and justice, education, and social welfare. During the past two decades, numerous statisticians and methodologists have contributed to early forms of methods guidance and methods recommendations (it would be impossible to name them all and it would be unfair to just mention some). In recent years, with the expansion of the Campbell CGs, the type of questions asked and evidence used among CGs has diversified. These changes produce new challenges, and with new challenges new opportunities arise as well.

In more recent years, with the intention to better serve the rest of the CGs, the Methods CG, with the support of the board, the Editor in Chief, and the CEO, started to produce discussion papers, methods guidance, and methods policy. These early efforts are collected as Methods Research Papers in the Campbell Systematic Reviews journal.

Methods articles are open access, peer‐reviewed multidisciplinary manuscripts. The primary goal of the articles published within the Campbell Systematic Reviews journal is to provide methodological support for the systematic reviews and evidence and gap maps that it also publishes.

As such, we welcome different categories of manuscripts (described more fully below):

Method: Innovative Methods Papers
Research Methods Guide
Method: Translations
Research Methodology: Discussion Paper—Methodology
Systematic Review: Systematic Reviews of Methods, and
Guidance Paper
Policy Paper

Methods manuscripts published in the Campbell Systematic Reviews journal are anchored in addressing practical problems of designing, conducting, reporting, and implementing systematic reviews and their results. We welcome manuscripts that use different forms of inquiry and traditions. Because we want to provide transparent and accessible methodological information to researchers, we encourage any data and source code used in the submission to be submitted with the manuscript prior to peer review. In cases in which quantitative manuscripts provide findings from a simulation study, the source code of the simulation should be provided. Although not required, we encourage all submissions that use software for analyses (quantitative or qualitative) to rely on an open‐source software. Finally, the Methods CG will disseminate guidance and policy papers as Guidance and policy papers.

METHOD: INNOVATIVE METHODS PAPER

We welcome Innovative Methods Papers that introduce a novel approach to any of the stages of a systematic review, compare the use of different known methods, or demonstrate the accuracy or inaccuracy of a known method. Innovative Methods must be relevant to at least one of the stages of Campbell Systematic Reviews , or evidence and gap maps. These manuscripts must provide some examples (when feasible with real data), and the data and source code utilized in the example must be submitted at the time for the submission. If a simulation study is conducted, the source code of the simulation study must be included with the submission. For an example of an Innovative Methods Paper see Polanin and Nuijten ( 2018 ).

RESEARCH METHODS GUIDE

There are papers that demonstrate, illustrate, and teach other researchers undertaking systematic review how to use specific methods. Whether focusing on a specific technique or software, these papers must be written in accessible language in order to reach a broader audience that may be interested in learning the practical use of the technique or software implemented. Because the goal of the tutorial is to aid other researchers in learning something that they have not yet mastered, particular attention should be given to the demonstration component of the manuscript. Papers must clearly articulate the objectives of the guide. Although not required, authors of Research Methods Guides are encouraged to create an appendix with a set of Q&A to help the reader test their understanding of the content. For an example of a Research Methods Guide see Papakonstantinou et al. ( 2020 ).

METHOD: TRANSLATION

These are short (two to three pages) papers aimed at stakeholders and consumers of systematic reviews. These papers aim to communicate, in plain language, the reason that a particular method is used and why it matters for stakeholders and consumers. Translation Papers answer questions such as: What should a stakeholder know about a particular method? Why should stakeholders care that systematic reviews use a specific method? For example, what should a stakeholder know about heterogeneity? Why should stakeholders care that systematic reviews account for dependence?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: DISCUSSION PAPER—METHODOLOGY

These are relatively short papers that discuss a specific method‐related topic. Discussion papers are not intended to be an exhaustive review of a topic or introduce a new method. This type of manuscript intends to highlight methods, such as specific advantages of a method or tool (e.g., software) and to explain the possible implications of the implementation of the discuss methods or tools. This type of paper is similar to commentary papers in other journals. For an example of a Research Methodology: Discussion Paper, see Haddaway et al. ( 2020 ).

SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS OF METHODS

These are systematic reviews of methods. Systematic reviews of methods answer questions related, but not limited to: How is a particular method being used? What is reported when a particular method is being used? What is the overall bias or precision of a method while synthesizing multiple simulation studies? For examples of Systematic Reviews of Methods see Villar and Waddington ( 2019 ) and Wang et al. ( 2021 ).

GUIDANCE PAPERS

The Methods CG encourages the constituents of the Campbell Collaboration to write guidance papers. Guidance Papers are recommendations in how to approach a particular issue. Although it may be considered good practice to follow a specific guidance, it is not mandated or expected that all Campbell reviews comply with these. Guidance papers are sent for consultation with all CGs as part of the peer review process. The guidance on information retrieval (Kugley et al., 2017 ) and on evidence and gap maps (White et al., 2020 ) are examples of guidance.

POLICY PAPERS

Policies are, typically, previous guidance that has been elevated to policy. All Campbell reviews are expected to comply with policies. As part of the peer review process, Policy Papers are sent for consultation to all CGs. In addition, policies need to be approved by a technical panel. The Methodological Expectations for Campbell Collaboration Intervention Reviews (MECCIR) represent the Campbell policy on expectations (MECCIR Conduct Standards).

The inclusion of methods articles in the Campbell Systematic Reviews journal is another step that the Campbell Collaboration is taking to support the publication of high‐quality systematic reviews and evidence and gap maps. For questions related to the methods articles, please contact us at gro.noitaroballocllebpmac@sdohtem .

Haddaway, N. R. , Callaghan, M. W. , Collins, A. M. , Lamb, W. F. , Minx, J. C. , Thomas, J. , & John, D. (2020). On the use of computer‐assistance to facilitate systematic mapping . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 16 , e1129. 10.1002/cl2.1129 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Kugley, S. , Wade, A. , Thomas, J. , Mahood, Q. , Jørgensen, A.‐M. K. , Hammerstrøm, K. , & Sathe, N. (2017). Searching for studies: A guide to information retrieval for Campbell systematic reviews . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 13 , 1–73. 10.4073/cmg.2016.1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
MECCIR Conduct Standards: The Methods Group of the Campbell Collaboration . Methodological expectations of Campbell Collaboration intervention reviews: Conduct standards. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/page/journal/18911803/homepage/author-guidelines
Papakonstantinou, T. , Nikolakopoulou, A. , Higgins, J. P.T. , Egger, M. , & Salanti, G. (2020). CINeMA: Software for semiautomated assessment of the confidence in the results of network meta‐analysis . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 16 , e1080. 10.1002/cl2.108 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Polanin, J. R. , & Nuijten, M. B. (2018). Verifying the accuracy of statistical significance testing in Campbell Collaboration systematic reviews through the use of the R package statcheck . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 14 , 1–36. 10.4073/csrm.2018.1 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Villar, P. F. , & Waddington, H. (2019). Within study comparisons and risk of bias in international development: Systematic review and critical appraisal . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 15 , e1027. 10.1002/cl2.1027 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Wang, X. , Welch, V. , Li, M. , Yao, L. , Littell, J. , Li, H. , Yang, N. , Wang, J. , Shamseer, L. , Chen, Y. , Yang, K. , & Grimshaw, J. M. (2021). The methodological and reporting characteristics of Campbell reviews: A systematic review . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 17 , e1134. 10.1002/cl2.1134 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
White, H. , Albers, B. , Gaarder, M. , Kornør, H. , Littell, J. , Marshall, Z. , Matthew, C. , Pigott, T. , Snilstveit, B. , Waddington, H. , & Welch, V. (2020). Guidance for producing a Campbell evidence and gap map . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 16 , e1125. 10.1002/cl2.1125 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Research progress on cigarette filters using laser drilling method for ventilation and harm reduction

Liu, Jincang
Zhao, Wenkang
Wang, Zhenze
Zang, Jianbin

In order to understand the current research status of cigarette filters using laser drilling methods for ventilation and harm reduction, and provide ideas for related work on new product development and improvement, this article reviews the factors affecting the ventilation effect after filter punching, the mathematical model and CFD simulation study of cigarette smoke flow, and the study of cigarette draw resistance, ventilation rate and key substance release rules. The results show: The most popular online laser drilling technology for filters has good ventilation stability, but there are still some problems such as uneven hole shapes and side-cut oval holes, which make the ventilation effect of cigarette filters deviate from the original design intention. Furthermore, the mathematical correlation between cigarette filter laser drilling parameters - filter ventilation - key substance release - cigarette sensory quality should be found to reduce the trial and error cost of cigarette manufacturers and play a guiding role in the development and production of traditional cigarettes. Perforated cigarettes have the effect of reducing scorch and harm, but perforating holes will have a negative impact on the appearance quality of some cigarette products. Making perforated cigarettes more beautiful while ensuring ventilation and reducing char in cigarettes will be the future direction of laser perforation of traditional cigarettes.

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A team of researchers from UNT is using high quality satellite and aerial imagery to study how farmers in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley are using water resources and how the farmers’ irrigation methods have changed over the past decades.

Water is an essential resource in people’s daily lives and a crucial element for farmers’ successful crop yields. Of the freshwater consumed in the world annually, 70% is used for agricultural irrigation. However, 40% of water used by farmers is wasted through evaporation as well as poor irrigation and water management.

Lu Liang, assistant professor in UNT’s Department of Geography and the Environment , and Xiaohui Yuan, associate professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering , are studying irrigation practices and identifying where are they located in the conterminous U.S.

“We want to have a very clear understanding about how much water has been used by irrigation,” Liang says. “This work will further differentiate how irrigation practices are used for different crops. Rice, for instance, is one of the biggest water consumers out of all the major crops because farmers use flooding technology.”

The traditional irrigation method for rice is to plant on a slope and let the water run down the slope, leaving the crop at the top slightly under-irrigated, the crop at the bottom flooded and getting just the right amounts of water for the crops in the center.

“Tons of water has been wasted through this method,” she says. “Some of the new methods being used can cut water usage by half using a zero-grade method. Right now, we don’t know how many people and how much land are using the new method and how many are still using the old method.”

Data produced by the UNT research team will support decision making for future water conservation at a national level. The aerial and satellite images they are using have a resolution of 1 meter per pixel, classifying it as “high resolution,” which will allow much more accurate classification of the crops, irrigation types and other objects in the photos. Liang, Yuan and a team of undergraduate and graduate students, including the new GIS+CS bachelor’s degree program, are using the images and data to assess the irrigation methods.

The work is funded by multiple grants totaling nearly $650,000 from National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States Geological Survey and a UNT seed grant.

“A critical component of our studies is the advanced algorithm of deep learning and image analysis that learns from relatively few examples but generalizes to large geographical areas across the U.S.,” Yuan says. “Our preliminary results demonstrate over 90% accuracy, which makes us confident that we will produce high-quality data products with the dedication of our graduate students, such as Abolfazl Meyarian, and many undergraduate students as well as collaborators.”

Research on an Adaptive Prediction Method for Restaurant Air Quality Based on Occupancy Detection

53 Pages Posted: 13 Jul 2024

Dalian University of Technology

Chang Xiong

Aarhus University

Cardiff University

Tareq Hussein

University of Helsinki

Tianyi Zhao

This study evaluates the impact of personnel on air quality in a restaurant environment, which is characterized by the peculiarities of personnel movement, high concentration of personnel in a short period of time, poor ventilation and high personnel density, leading to the accumulation of pollutants that can severely damage personnel health. This study focuses on carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM) concentrations, and proposes an online adaptive model for predicting CO2 and PM concentrations.The influence factors of the environment are analysed by correlation of measured data, and appropriate input parameters (time-lagged cumulative number of people) are selected, then the Auto-Regressive with Exogenous Inputs (ARX) model is used to predict the change of air quality with the movement and number of people, and other classical models such as LR, DT, SVM, ENS, GPR, NN and VARX are compared, and it is found that the ARX model has an excellent performance in predicting the environment of a restaurant, the effect of different environmental factors on the predictive effectiveness of the model was also explored. When combined with real-time sensor data and AIC-based adaptive optimization, the prediction accuracy is further improved by more than 25%. The R2 of the ARX model is 0.9549, the RMSE is 1.21 μg/m3, the MAE is 0.8352 μg/m3 and the MAPE is 3.17%. The adaptively optimized model can be adapted to different environments, overcoming the problem of poor adaptability of such models. The study paves the way for more effective environmental control strategies in public spaces.

Keywords: Air quality, Building Occupancy Ratio, Predictive modeling, Carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM), Adaptive optimization, ARX model

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Dalian University of Technology ( email )

Huiying Rd DaLian, LiaoNing, 116024 China

Aarhus University ( email )

Cardiff university ( email ).

Aberconway Building Colum Drive Cardiff, CF10 3EU United Kingdom

University of Helsinki ( email )

University of Helsinki Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland

Tianyi Zhao (Contact Author)

Huiying Rd DaLian, LiaoNing, Liaoning 116024 China

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What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 5, 2024 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

Your overall research objectives and approach
Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
Your data collection methods
The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger research proposal or other project. In either case, you should carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative approach	Quantitative approach
	and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations about relationships between variables

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

Type of design	Purpose and characteristics
Experimental	relationships effect on a
Quasi-experimental	)
Correlational
Descriptive

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Type of design	Purpose and characteristics


Grounded theory
Phenomenology

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling	Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Questionnaires	Interviews
	)

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative observation

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

Field	Examples of data collection methods
Media & communication	Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives
Psychology	Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or reaction time
Education	Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills
Physical sciences	Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

Reliability	Validity
	) )

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

Approach	Characteristics
Thematic analysis
Discourse analysis

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

Your research questions and/or hypotheses
Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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The methods section is a fundamental section of any paper since it typically discusses the 'what', 'how', 'which', and 'why' of the study, which is necessary to arrive at the final conclusions. In a research article, the introduction, which serves to set the foundation for comprehending the background and results is usually ...
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What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips. Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on September 5, 2024. Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing ...
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Research papers in the social and natural sciences often follow APA style. This article focuses on reporting quantitative research methods. In your APA methods section, you should report enough information to understand and replicate your study, including detailed information on the sample, measures, and procedures used.
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I. Groups of Research Methods. There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences: The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences.This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured.
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Research methods are ways of collecting and analysing data. Common methods include surveys, experiments, interviews, and observations. ... In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section.
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Key Research Methods Qualitative Methods. Focus: Understanding the nuances and depth of non-numerical data, offering rich, detailed insights into your research topic. Common Techniques: Interviews, focus groups, case studies, and content analysis. Application: Best for exploring new ideas, developing theories, and understanding individual or group experiences in detail.
Research Methods--Quantitative, Qualitative, and More: Overview
About Research Methods. This guide provides an overview of research methods, how to choose and use them, and supports and resources at UC Berkeley. As Patten and Newhart note in the book Understanding Research Methods, "Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the "how" for building systematic knowledge.
Writing the Research Paper
Writing the Research Paper. Write a detailed outline. Almost the rough content of every paragraph. The order of the various topics in your paper. On the basis of the outline, start writing a part by planning the content, and then write it down. Put a visible mark (which you will later delete) where you need to quote a source, and write in the ...
PDF Methodology Section for Research Papers
The methodology section of your paper describes how your research was conducted. This information allows readers to check whether your approach is accurate and dependable. A good methodology can help increase the reader's trust in your findings. First, we will define and differentiate quantitative and qualitative research.
How to write the Methods section of a research paper
4. Use subheadings: Dividing the Methods section in terms of the experiments helps the reader to follow the section better. You may write the specific objective of each experiment as a subheading. Alternatively, if applicable, the name of each experiment can also be used as subheading. 5.
Research Paper
Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new ...
Research Methods
Quantitative research methods are used to collect and analyze numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to test a hypothesis, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and measure the prevalence of certain phenomena. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
PDF How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper
The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials ...
Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology
I. Groups of Research Methods. There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences: The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured.
How to write the methods section of a research paper
Writing* / standards. The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study's validity is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done, and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were chosen. The methods section should describe wh ….
Research Guides: Writing a Scientific Paper: METHODS
However careful writing of this section is important because for your results to be of scientific merit they must be reproducible. Otherwise your paper does not represent good science. Goals: Describe equipment used and provide illustrations where relevant. "Methods Checklist" from: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper. Chris A. Mack. SPIE. 2018.
Guides: URP 4600 Research Guide: Steps to Writing a Research Paper
It's a plan to answer your research question. A research method is your strategy used to implement that plan. These ideas are closely related but research design ensures you will answer your research question more effectively. Which research method should I choose? It depends on your research and the data you are trying to collect. Common ...
How to use and assess qualitative research methods
Abstract. This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions ...
Papers on research methods: The hidden gems of the research literature
A research methods paper that presents a data analysis software is the contribution of Stiglic, Watson, and Cilar . The researchers present R, a package in the public domain, and provide the code in R for a confirmatory factor analysis. Our last special issue paper is not a research methods paper. Nor is it any of our traditional paper types.
Editorial: Types of methods research papers in the journal
RESEARCH METHODS GUIDE. There are papers that demonstrate, illustrate, and teach other researchers undertaking systematic review how to use specific methods. Whether focusing on a specific technique or software, these papers must be written in accessible language in order to reach a broader audience that may be interested in learning the ...
Types of Research Designs Compared
Laboratory experiments have higher internal validity but lower external validity. Fixed design vs flexible design. In a fixed research design the subjects, timescale and location are set before data collection begins, while in a flexible design these aspects may develop through the data collection process.
The extended case method in nursing research: Unpacking the 'what
Background: The extended case method approach has been in existence for decades, albeit remains poorly utilized in nursing, though there are several phenomena of interest to the discipline that may potentially benefit from this unique approach. This provides an avenue to examine the extended case method approach and how to employ it to examine phenomena of interest to the discipline of nursing.
Research progress on cigarette filters using laser drilling method for
In order to understand the current research status of cigarette filters using laser drilling methods for ventilation and harm reduction, and provide ideas for related work on new product development and improvement, this article reviews the factors affecting the ventilation effect after filter punching, the mathematical model and CFD simulation study of cigarette smoke flow, and the study of ...
Research Backed by NASA, U.S. Geological Survey will Inform Changes in
Research Backed by NASA, U.S. Geological Survey will Inform Changes in Water-wise Irrigation Techniques. April 15, 2022. Lu Liang ... in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley are using water resources and how the farmers' irrigation methods have changed over the past decades. Water is an essential resource in people's daily lives and a crucial ...
Research on an Adaptive Prediction Method for Restaurant Air ...
Download This Paper. Open PDF in Browser. Add Paper to My Library. Share: Permalink. Using these links will ensure access to this page indefinitely ... Chang and Rong, Li and Luo, Zhiwen and Hussein, Tareq and Zhao, Tianyi, Research on an Adaptive Prediction Method for Restaurant Air Quality Based on Occupancy Detection. Available at SSRN ...
What Is a Research Design
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

What is the methods section of a research paper ?

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Structure of methods section of a research paper

How to write the methods section of a research paper

What to include in the methods section of a research paper

What NOT to include in the methods section of a research paper

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Research Methods | Definition, Types, Examples

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What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

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Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Research Methods

Types of Research Methods

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Muhammad Hassan

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