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Urban Renewal: The Latest Architecture and News

Re-naturalization of urban waterways: the case study of cheonggye stream in seoul, south korea.

Cheongye Stream, known as Cheonggyecheon (청계천) in Korean, runs eastward through the heart of Seoul , passing through 13 neighborhoods in four districts of the capital of South Korea . Throughout its history, the stream played different roles in the city until it was covered by an elevated highway in the 1970s. For over 30 years, this natural artery remained hidden. It was not until 2003 that the city government launched a restoration project to reintegrate this urban waterway into the city fabric , revitalize the local economy, and revive the area's history and culture. The revitalization efforts were led by Mikyoung Kim Design . Since the project's completion in 2005, it quickly became one of Seoul 's most visited tourist attractions. Moreover, it has become a focal point for ample urban research, with many studies offering positive assessments of the impact it had on Seoul's urban, economic, and ecological context.

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Foster + Partners Reveals Master Plan for the Revitalization of Earthquake-Hit Region of Hatay, Türkiye

As part of a wider design-led revitalization process, Türkiye Design Council has announced a new urban plan for the revitalization of Antakya and the wider Hatay province in Türkiye, an area heavily affected by the Türkiye-Syria earthquake on 6 February 2023 . The master plan has been developed by Foster + Partners , Buro Happold , MIC-HUB, along with Turkish practices DB Architects , and KEYM Urban Renewal Centre. The plan covers a 30-square-kilometer area of Antakya, the capital district of Hatay, and an important urban center of antiquity known as Antioch. Eight design principles have been outlined to guide the rebuilding efforts in an attempt to maintain the spirit of the city, which suffered extensive damages estimated at 80 percent.

Hong Kong’s Adaptive Reuse Projects: A Case Study in Urban Renewal for Cities with a Colonial History

As major cities continue to develop, we face intriguing challenges regarding the preservation and adaptive reuse of significant buildings, sites, and artifacts. This poses a complex question that involves political history, architectural theory , and cultural significance. Adaptive reuse extends beyond architectural and spatial designs; it allows cities and communities to reflect, reevaluate, and reinterpret their history from different perspectives. However, unlike books and words, buildings may not withstand the test of time themselves and serve as firsthand evidence of the stories they tell. How should we question ourselves on what to preserve and demolish? How can communities be involved in the active restoration or adaptation of historic buildings?

Canada Pavilion Explores Renewal at Expo Osaka 2025

As part of Canada’s Indo-Pacific Strategy , which has been in effect since 2021 , the country has released its design for Expo Osaka 2025 in Kinsai, Japan . According to Canadian Architect, the pavilion's design team includes Rayside Labossière architects and architect Guillaume Pelletier. Additionally, it aims to showcase Canadian innovation, resources, investment, and education to the broader Indo-Pacific region. Centered around regeneration , the design is in line with the broader theme at the Expo: “Designing the Future Society for Our Lives.”

Is Paris Ready for the Olympics? Exploring the City-Wide Implications of Hosting Global Events

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Olympic games included some unusual medal competitions , including architectural design and town planning. While these are no longer awarded Olympic events, architecture and urban planning continues to continue to have a crucial effect on the development of the global sporting event. Cities that bid to host face an important challenge in adapting their infrastructure to accommodate not only the venues and facilities, but all the support structures needed for a safe and enjoyable edition . Paris is no different . While the city hosted 2 previous editions of the games over a century ago, the challenges of the modern-day Games have proven significant. However, the city’s expansive infrastructures have enabled officials to adjust the measures in an effort to have sustainable development for and after the Games . With less than a month to go until the opening ceremony, explore the measures taken by city officials and the long-lasting effects of hosting an Olympic event.

Urban Renewal from Below: 10 Public Spaces that Reclaim Neglected City Infrastructure

Urban infrastructure intended for city connectivity disrupts urban patterns and often leaves behind a series of spaces without a properly defined use. Fortunately, the notion of space beneath infrastructure is being redefined, as architects are generating public spaces nestled under flyovers, bridges, and other urban structures. 

Formerly neglected spaces, overlooked or dismissed as mere leftovers of urban planning, are now transformed into dynamic environments for community engagement and artistic expression. Architects , city planners, and the users themselves are embracing the challenge of reclaiming forgotten or underutilized areas and developing innovative solutions, integrating greenery, art installations, and sustainable elements into the urban fabric.

Goettsch Partners Wins Urban Renewal Design Competition in Jinan, China

Goettsch Partners has recently won a design competition for an expansive urban renewal initiative in Jinan , China . Spanning three parcels, encompassing a total area of 111,500 sqm, the scheme is situated alongside the infamous Honglou Plaza. Positioned at the city’s center, Honglou Plaza holds historical significance as home to one of the region’s oldest cathedrals. The competition aimed to introduce concepts that would re-energize the regional core, through a design centered on pedestrian engagement.

San Francisco’s Love Affair With the Ferry Building

This article was originally published on Common Edge.

Can telling the story of one building tell a larger story about the city it’s a part of? That’s the central premise of John King’s engaging new book, Portal: San Francisco ’s Ferry Building and the Reinvention of American Cities (W.W. Norton). The long-time urban design critic for the San Francisco Chronicle has written a brisk, lively history of this beloved edifice, which opened in 1898 and served as the principal gateway to the city until the emergence of the automobile (and the bridges that served them).

For decades it sat largely empty and neglected, cordoned off by the Embarcadero Freeway. After the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989, the damaged highway was eventually removed, freeing up the Ferry Building, which was given new life as a transportation hub, food hall, and office building. Last week I talked to King about the genesis for the book, the terminal’s seminal importance to the city of San Francisco , and the threat it faces from rising sea levels.

A Highway Turned into Urban Farmland in California and a Contextual Insertion in Central Prague: 8 Urban Renewal Projects Submitted by the ArchDaily Community

Through urban renewal projects, architects, urban planners, and designers can infuse new life into dilapidated urban landscapes by upgrading the infrastructure, introducing new functions into the urban fabric, and reimagining the character of open public spaces. These types of projects present interest due to their dual character: on the one side they offer an opportunity for reimagining the potential of the city, but the areas they affect are already well-ingrained within the urban fabric, raising challenges of integration and contextual adaptation.

This week's curated selection of Best Unbuilt Architecture highlights projects submitted by the ArchDaily community that enhance functionality, aesthetics, and sustainability of urban areas while respecting and embracing the existing fabric of the city. From a residential neighborhood that prioritizes self-sufficiency and circularity in the Netherlands, to a highway ramp transformed into productive spaces in California, United States, or a new elevated path designed to alleviate urban congestion in the harbor of Copenhagen, his selection features projects that highlight the ever-changing character of our cities. Featuring projects from both emerging and established architectural offices such as Benthem Crouwel Architects , Space&Matter , and Vincent Callebaut Architectures , the projects demonstrate the variety of approaches needed to adapt urban environments to the needs of their residents.

A Central Square in Greece and a Giant Clock in Germany: 8 Unbuilt Public Spaces Submitted by the ArchDaily Community

Public spaces are the beating heart of our cities . They act as the hubs of social and cultural activity where people congregate, interact, and escape the clamor of the city. These areas are crucial in determining a city's identity, character, and citizens' well-being and standard of living. Public spaces can define our communities and significantly impact how we live, work, and interact with one another through their architectural designs, facilities, and activities. Furthermore, they provide leisure, exercise, and recreation opportunities, allowing individuals to escape the confines of their daily routines and connect with nature.

This week's curated selection of Best Unbuilt Architecture highlights projects submitted by the ArchDaily community showcasing different proposals made to enhance public space. Ranging from reimagining central squares to placing massive land art in the urban epicenter, these public spaces enhance the quality of life for the city's locals. In Germany , the redesign of the entire Memorium Nürnberger Trials reimagines this as a place to come together, grounded in its history, while in Havana, the new Cuban Square reimagines the metaphor of unity in the city center. The design and accessibility of public spaces significantly impact our well-being and quality of life. Thoughtfully planned and inclusive spaces with seating, greenery, and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure can promote physical activity, mental health, and community engagement in a city.

PAU’s Niagara Falls Gateways Project Reimagines a Former Hydraulic Canal as an Engaging Public Space

New York-based studio Practice for Architecture and Urbanism (PAU) has been selected to lead the design for the Niagara Falls Heritage Gateway project. This reimagined public gateway aims to reinvigorate the site, attract new visitors, and stimulate the local economy. As part of the “ Downtown Niagara Falls Development Strategy ,” the project also aims to strengthen the connections between downtown Niagara Falls and the Niagara Falls State Park . The project is expected to be completed in 2024.

A-lab and LPO Unveil Design for a Mixed-Use Development as Part of Fjord City Oslo, a Large-Scale Urban Renewal Project

Norwegian architecture offices A-lab and LPO revealed the plan to develop the last remaining plot in Bispevika, part of the Fjord City, a large-scale waterfront urban renewal project in the center of Oslo , Norway . The intervention strengthens the connection between the historic medieval city of Oslo to the new Fjord City while also introducing cultural, creative, and commercial activities to the area. The project comprises five buildings forming a quarter. The proposed massing and height take a contextual approach as they are reduced toward important local monuments such as the baroque residence “Ladegården” with its baroque garden “Barokkhagen." The project is developed by Oslo S Utvikling (OSU), the same client behind the Barcode project , and in collaboration with landscape architects SLA .

Place Branding: Reviving Cities through Brand Strategy

The 1970’s were a dark time for New York City . While the economy was down, crime rates were at an all-time high. The negative public image also kept tourists away, driving the city into a financial crisis. To change perceptions about The Big Apple, the New York State Department for Economic Development approached advertising firm Wells Rich Greene to create an inviting marketing operation . After 45 years, the resulting I Love NY campaign remains fresh in the minds of locals and tourists, successfully revamping New York City’s brand. Cities across the world like Paris, Amsterdam and Jerusalem have similarly invested heavily in constructing magnetic brands for themselves.

Kengo Kuma To Revitalise Abandoned Site in Paris

Kengo Kuma's EDA office building revitalizes an abandoned site in Paris , creating a new urban landmark and signalling the renewal of the Issy-les-Moulineaux neighbourhood. Through its horizontality, the large scale project sitting at the confluence of three traffic rouets mediates the urban discontinuities of the surroundings while reflecting the context's dynamic of movement and flows. Defined as "a dense network of tree-lined terraces and hanging gardens", the design features a wood structure and a double-skin façade whose sunscreen elements create the architectural image.

What Will Happen to Cities if Everyone Keeps Working From Home?

Our lives in urban centers have been completely upended over the last 16 months. As we look into the near future, some of us begin to experience the call back into our workplaces and experience the awakening of a long slumber of cities, it’s without a doubt that life as we knew it will never be the same. While some on the extreme end have been asking “will we even need cities?” (to which the answer is a very definite yes), how will cities change if we continue to move forward in this digital era of work and life that was accelerated by the pandemic ?

Foster + Partner's Power Station Master Plan in San Francisco Breaks Ground

As part of the Dogpatch mixed-use waterfront development , Foster + Partner's Power Station extension has finally broken ground. The master plan will create multiple new residential, commercial, and recreational spaces, honoring its industrial past and reconnecting the community with the San Francisco Bay waterfront. The architecture firm's 2-building proposal provides the neighborhood with an ideal urban framework to help create a vibrant, healthy, and inclusive community.

Herzog & de Meuron to Convert Former San Francisco Power Plant into Mixed-Use Project

Construction work began for Herzog & de Meuron’s transformation of a former power plant building in San Fransico into a mixed-use project. Designed in collaboration with California-based practice Adamson Associates, the adaptive reuse of iconic Station A is part of the Portrero Power Station project , the redevelopment of a 29-acre industrial site into an extension of the Dogpatch neighbourhood . Herzog & de Meuron’s design retains and repurposes various features of the industrial building while adding a lightweight, steel-framed structure on top, thus giving new life to one of San Francisco ’s landmarks.

A Theme Park-Inspired Urban Design in Italy and a Floating Neighbourhood in Iran: 10 Unbuilt Projects Submitted to Archdaily

Urban design is increasingly striving for more inclusive, sustainable environments, bringing together various groups and activities, and fostering social interaction. This week's curated selection of the Best Unbuilt Architecture focuses on urban designs, large-scale urban development projects and masterplans submitted by the ArchDaily Community , showcasing how architects around the world work with and shape the urban fabric of highly diverse environments.

From the transformation of a brownfield into a lively neighbourhood in the Czech Republic to the redevelopment of Bergamo's city centre around new spatial and collective values, the following projects showcase the ideas shaping urban design, from functional diversity and notions of proximity to a focus on outdoor spaces. The common denominators of the following projects are their collective focus and the strong connection with the existing urban fabric.

How Eight Cities Succeeded in Rejuvenating their Urban Land

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SINGAPORE, July 13, 2016 – The single most crucial component in rejuvenating decaying urban areas around the world is private sector participation, according to a report released today from the World Bank and the Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF) during the World Cities Summit taking place in Singapore this week.

“ Urban regeneration projects are rarely implemented solely by the public sector.  There is a need for massive financial resources that most cities can’t meet,” said Ede Ijjasz-Vasquez, Senior Director for the World Bank’s Social, Urban, Rural and Resilience Global Practice .  “Participation from the private sector is a critical factor in determining whether a regeneration program is successful – programs that create urban areas where citizens can live, work, and thrive .”

Every city has pockets of underused land or distressed urban areas, most often the result of changes in urban growth and productivity patterns. In developing countries, which are absorbing 90 percent of the world’s urban population growth, decaying inner cities are home to an increasing number of poor and vulnerable citizens. These areas marginalize and exclude residents, and can have a long-term negative effect on their upward mobility.

Regenerating Urban Land: A Practitioner’s Guide to Leveraging Private Investment looks at regeneration programs from eight cities around the world – Ahmedabad, Buenos Aires, Johannesburg, Santiago, Singapore, Seoul, Shanghai, and Washington DC – documenting the journeys they have faced in tackling major challenges in this area. 

Building on the experience of cities from different regions around the world, the report looks at projects for inner cities, former industrial or commercial site, ports, waterfronts, and historic neighborhoods. While the cases vary in many aspects, what they have in common is significant private sector participation in the regeneration and rehabilitation of deteriorating urban areas. 

The report singles out successful policy and finance tools in each city case study, and points out issues and challenges the city faced during the process. It identifies four distinct phases for successful urban regeneration: scoping, planning, financing, and implementation. Each phase includes a set of unique mechanisms that local governments can use to systematically design a regeneration process.

For example, in Singapore, the polluted Singapore River was no longer used for trading activities as large-scale container ports gained prominence. 

“ Capitalizing on the Singapore River’s historical importance and potential for redevelopment, the government launched a transformational program that preserved cultural heritage, improved the environment, and opened the area for recreational pedestrian use.  Similar efforts elsewhere can rejuvenate cities and regional economies,” said Jordan Schwartz, Director of the World Bank’s Infrastructure & Urban Development Hub, based in Singapore .

Yet there is no “one size fits all” approach when looking for solutions to cities’ declining areas.  The report stresses that while the tools presented in the report yielded successful results in many cities around the world, no one solution is universally applicable to all cities and situations .  The report also emphasizes that with strong political leadership, any city can start an urban regeneration process, but the successful use of land-planning and finance tools depend on sound and well-enforced zoning and property tax systems.

“No two cities are alike, so to meet this challenge, the World Bank created an online decision tool, based on the specific issues the city faces and its current regulatory and financial environment ,” said Rana Amirtahmasebi, author of the report. “ Local governments can use the information curated in this report to begin to reverse the process of economic, social, and physical decay in urban areas, moving toward the sustainable, inclusive development of their cities.”    

Illustrating the transformation, other case studies from the new report include:

• The city of Santiago (Chile) lost almost 50 percent of its population and 33 percent of its housing stock between 1950 and 1990. But the city turned this around, using a national housing subsidy to specifically target the repopulation of the inner city. The private investment reached USD 3 billion throughout the life of project, stimulated by a USD 138 million subsidy.
• Buenos Aires (Argentina) found itself on the verge of becoming unsustainable, when urban sprawl moved away from downtown leaving prime waterfront land, with significant architectural and industrial heritage, vacant and underused. To tackle this problem, the city used a self-financing urban regeneration initiative in Puerto Madero to redevelop the unused 170-hectare land parcel to an attractive mixed-use waterfront neighborhood. The total investment reached USD 1.7 billion, with USD 300 million invested by the city through the sale of land.
• Seoul (Republic of Korea) experienced a major decrease in residential and commercial activity in its downtown, where small plots, narrow roads, and high land prices made development too costly. From 1975 to 1995, Seoul lost more than half its downtown population, while substandard housing for mostly squatters and renters was more than twice the city’s average. Seoul launched the Cheonggyecheon revitalization project to redevelop an 18-lane elevated highway into a revitalized stream with green public space totaling 16.3 hectares, dramatically increasing real estate values and the variety of uses for the downtown areas.
• In Ahmedabad (India) , the closure of mills along the Sabarmati Riverfront caused unemployed laborers to form large informal settlements along the riverbed, creating unsafe and unclean living areas and reducing the flood management capacity.  In response, the city created a development corporation to reclaim 200 hectares of riverfront land on both sides and paid the project costs through the sale of 14.5 percent of the reclaimed land, while the rest of the riverfront was transformed into public parks and laborers resettled through a national program. 
• In the 18-square kilometer inner city of Johannesburg (South Africa) , a series of targeted regeneration initiatives achieved a decline in property vacancy rates from 40 percent in 2003 to 17 percent in 2008, and a similar jump in property transactions.  Since 2001, for every rand (R) 1 million (about USD 63,000) invested by the Johannesburg Development Authority, private investors have put R 18 million into the inner city of Johannesburg, creating property assets valued at R 600 million and infrastructure assets valued at R 3.1 billion.

For the full report and toolkit, please visit: https://urban-regeneration.worldbank.org/

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Baltimore Inner Harbor

Format Brief City Baltimore State/Province MD Country USA Metro Area Baltimore Project Type District/Corridor/Community Location Type Central Business District Land Uses Civic Uses Education Entertainment Hotel Multifamily For-Sale Housing Multifamily Rental Housing Office Open space Parking Restaurant Retail Single-Family For-Sale Housing Keywords Government collaboration Pollution cleanup Public-private partnership Sports ULI Awards for Excellence 2009 Winner ULI Heritage Award Winner Urban redevelopment Waterfront Site Size 192 acres acres hectares Date Started 1965 Date Opened 1983

A brief is a short version of a case study.

The Baltimore Inner Harbor comprises the redevelopment of 192 acres (78 ha) of formerly dilapidated and abandoned waterfront property. The project involved condemnation and clearance of 22 city blocks, followed by the property’s redevelopment as a mixed-use waterfront district with cornerstone office buildings, hotels, apartments, and a critical mass of cultural and entertainment attractions. Today, the Baltimore Inner Harbor contains 2.58 million square feet (239,690 m 2 ) of office space; 2.3 million square feet (213,677 m 2 ) of retail and entertainment space, including Harborplace, the waterfront festival marketplace; more than 800 residential units; 13 hotels; and numerous cultural venues, including the National Aquarium and the Maryland Science Center.

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Owner The Mayor and City Council of Baltimore Baltimore, MD

Development Manager Charles Center—Inner Harbor Management Baltimore, MD

Master Planner Wallace Roberts & Todd Philadelphia, PA

Website www.balitmore.org/about-baltimore/inner-harbor

Principal Author(s) Theodore Thoerig, Alexandra Notay, David Leipziger

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Central Vista Project: The Central Vista Redevelopment Plan

Amidst the Covid-19 pandemic, the Central Vista Redevelopment Project made jarring news. The redevelopment of Central Vista, India’s power center, is planned to be completed by 2024.

A new Parliament building, a new Central Secretariat, and a revamped Rajpath, the 3 km stretch from India Gate to Rashtrapati Bhawan , are all part of the redevelopment plan. The process commenced in 2019, with the invitation of proposals from eminent architects around the country. The bid was won by an Ahmedabad-based design firm called HCP Design , Planning & Management Pvt. Ltd., led by architect Bimal Patel.

So, what is the proposed design for Central Vista all about? 

The area extending from the Rashtrapati Bhavan to India Gate , in Delhi, is termed as the Central Vista. Though this remarkable and historical precinct was constructed during the British Raj, it nurtured and gained imminent importance in the post-independence era. Rashtrapati Bhawan, Parliament building , North & South Block, and central government secretariat buildings along Rajpath, all are part of the Central Vista. Institutions like National Museum, National Archives, Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA), Udyog Bhawan, Bikaner House, and various other plots in the vicinity, also come under the umbrella of Central Vista. 

The proposed redevelopment consists of two main features- a new Parliament building and a new common Central Secretariat. The new central government secretariat, which will come upon the location where the IGNCA and Raksha Bhawan are currently situated, will comprise of eight buildings, each having eight floors. The entire complex will have the capacity to house about 25,000-32,000 employees belonging to the various ministries. 

The new Parliament building will be constructed at the intersection of the triangle of the Red Cross Road and the Raisina Road, with the capacity to seat 900 to 1,200 Ministers of Parliament. The proposed capacity is enough to allow joint sessions of both the Houses. Another new feature will be the PM’s residence and his office, to be located behind the South Block. The primary motive for a PMO in the vicinity is to improve efficiency. The PM’s house will be connected to his new office and the new parliament via nuclear-attack resistant underground tunnels. Similarly, the Vice President’s new residence will be located behind the North Block. 

The Rashtrapati Bhawan will remain untouched, while the North and South Blocks will be converted to museums showcasing ‘Making of Modern India’ and ‘India at 75’. The current National Museum will be demolished and relocated. To ensure the prominence of India Gate and maintain the war memorials’ glory, no other building will be taller than the structure. 

The plan also includes the demolition of a few existing secretariat buildings such as Rail Bhavan, Shastri Bhavan, as well as the Ministry of External Affairs’ building, Vice President’s Residence, and other buildings along the Rajpath. 

Why exactly are architects, environmentalists, and heritage conservationists’ not happy with the proposal? 

Since the announcement of the bid for the project, it has faced numerous petitions and negative reviews for a variety of reasons. First and foremost, no parliamentary debates or discussions, public consultation or expert review, preceded the declaration of the project. The necessity of the project was not established with sound environmental, heritage , administrative, and technical parameters. There is growing concern over Delhi’s cultural heritage being destroyed with this revamp. 

Also, the lack of transparency in the bidding process, where only six firms were deemed eligible and the entire process of shortlisting and submission of proposals happened within a span of seven weeks, further weakened the proposal. Another constant discussion is the fast-forwarded timeline of the project, where the revamping of the central vista landscape is slated by the end of 2020.

Another major flaw is the violation of the master plan of the city. As much as 80 acres of land, currently accessible for the general public, will become restricted after the redevelopment and will be accessed only by government officials. Another argument put forward by architects’ is the change in land use, with no compensation for the spaces that wouldn’t be public anymore. Additionally, no heritage audit has been carried out for the project. Buildings of national importance and architectural excellence are going to be demolished or modified under the proposed development. Furthermore, no environmental audit has been undertaken either.

The question now is, will the objections and petitions make an impact on the government’s decision? Or will we see a new picture of Delhi’s landscape? 

References | Central Vista Redevelopment Project

https://scroll.in/article/964355/centres-rs-20000-crore-central-vista-redevelopment-plan-may-sit-at-odds-with-delhi-heritage-rules

https://www.indialegallive.com/special-story/central-vista-project-romancing-the-stone

https://thewire.in/government/central-vista-dda-land-use

https://thewire.in/urban/behind-modis-plans-to-redevelop-the-central-vista-is-a-covert-political-agenda

Kavya Jain is an architect by profession with a zest for writing, travelling, reading and eating! She is a young designer trying to use her knowledge for the betterment of the society. She spends her free time pursuing her passion of teaching kids in slums across the city. She is a firm believer of living life one day at a time, because the future will come your way, no matter what anyway!

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JSmol Viewer

A case study driven integrated methodology to support sustainable urban regeneration planning and management.

1. Introduction

2. urban regeneration: impacts and opportunities, 2.1. urban regeneration impacts, 2.1.1. the general importance for sustainability and resilience, 2.1.2. energy efficiency and environmental impacts, 2.1.3. economic, social and land-use impacts, 2.2. urban regeneration as a change of paradigm, 3. methodology for planning and management of ur actions, 3.1. phase i—identification of the need for ur, 3.1.1. step 01—identification of the need and creation of work groups, 3.1.2. step 02—survey of the existing situation, 3.2. phase ii—characterization of the intervention area, 3.2.1. step 03—definition of performance indicators/attributes, 3.2.2. step 04—definition of methodologies, 3.2.3. step 05—definition of objectives and their (relative) importance, 3.3. phase iii—analysis of intervention alternatives, 3.3.1. step 06—identification and definition of alternatives, 3.3.2. step 07—study and comparison of alternatives, 3.3.3. step 08—analysis of output and definition of intervention solutions, 3.3.4. step 09—public discussion and approval of the ur operation, 3.4. phase iv—concept, execution and control, 3.4.1. step 10—project/plan design, 3.4.2. step 11—project/plan revision and approval, 3.4.3. step 12—project/plan execution and control, 3.5. phase v—operation (mise en oeuvre) and maintenance, 3.5.1. step 13—completion of the intervention, 3.5.2. step 14—systems start-up, 3.5.3. step 15—monitoring, maintenance and continuous improvement, 3.6. final remarks, 4. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Natividade-Jesus, E.; Almeida, A.; Sousa, N.; Coutinho-Rodrigues, J. A Case Study Driven Integrated Methodology to Support Sustainable Urban Regeneration Planning and Management. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 4129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154129

Natividade-Jesus E, Almeida A, Sousa N, Coutinho-Rodrigues J. A Case Study Driven Integrated Methodology to Support Sustainable Urban Regeneration Planning and Management. Sustainability . 2019; 11(15):4129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154129

Natividade-Jesus, Eduardo, Arminda Almeida, Nuno Sousa, and João Coutinho-Rodrigues. 2019. "A Case Study Driven Integrated Methodology to Support Sustainable Urban Regeneration Planning and Management" Sustainability 11, no. 15: 4129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154129

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• Articles , Special Edition Articles , Thesis

15 Inspirational Riverfront Development Case Studies

• March 25, 2024
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• landscape urbanism , presentation , urban mobility , Urbanism

In recent years, the development and revitalization of riverfronts have become pivotal in urban planning and architecture across the globe, shaping the ways cities interact with their waterways. These projects not only redefine the aesthetic and functional aspects of the urban landscape but also contribute to the economic, social, and environmental well-being of the communities they serve. This article explores notable riverfront developments, providing insights into the strategies, outcomes, and impacts of these significant urban interventions.

UDL Thesis Publication 2024

Curating the best thesis Globally !

1. Paseo Marítimo Torrequebrada / El Muelle Arquitectos

Set against the bustling backdrop of Benalmadena Costa, amidst its sprawling tourist complexes, lies a serene yet profound intervention by El Muelle Arquitectos. This project, deeply entrenched in the ethos of tradition, landscape, and memory, seeks to weave the rich tapestry of the area’s maritime history with the modernity of today. By carefully selecting fragments tied to the sea and nature, and employing materials steeped in marine tradition, the intervention creates a harmonious dialogue between the past and present. The cornerstone of this architectural endeavor is its dedication to preserving and celebrating the coastal and natural heritage of the region, offering a refreshing contrast to its contemporary surroundings.

The heart of the project lies in its architectural masterpiece: an entrance hall that serves as a grand viewpoint overlooking the majestic Mediterranean. This structure ingeniously connects Antonio Machado Avenue with the Torrequebrada promenade, thanks to a staircase meticulously carved into the hillside, bridging a stark level difference with elegance and purpose. Further enhancing the allure of the promenade are the thoughtfully designed soft and hard bands that stretch across its length. The soft band, adorned with landscaped areas of Mediterranean flora, urban furniture, and lighting, creates a tranquil buffer space adjacent to the hotel complex. Meanwhile, the hard band caters to the more active pursuits, designed for walking and sports activities. Through strategic placement of spaces for relaxation, contemplation, and sunbathing, the intervention not only highlights the breathtaking landscape but also reclaims a piece of the city as a cherished oasis for both shelter and enjoyment.

2. Niederhafen River Promenade / Zaha Hadid Architects

In the heart of Hamburg, Germany, the Niederhafen River Promenade, designed by Zaha Hadid Architects, stands as a modern testament to the city’s commitment to both urban resilience and aesthetic splendor. As part of the city’s extensive flood protection system upgrade, this 625-meter-long promenade elegantly stretches along the Elbe River, connecting St. Pauli Landungsbrücken with Baumwall. This architectural marvel not only enhances Hamburg’s flood defenses by incorporating a higher barrier to accommodate modern hydrological predictions but also rejuvenates a key public space, marrying functionality with leisure. The project, initiated in response to the devastating storm surge floods of 1962 and subsequent findings regarding the insufficiency of the old barrier, showcases an adept integration of protective infrastructure and urban landscape design.

Beyond its primary role in flood defense, the Niederhafen River Promenade serves as a vibrant urban space that enriches the city’s riverside. Its design cleverly incorporates generous public areas, including wide staircases that double as small amphitheaters, shops, cafes, and dedicated cycle lanes, thus re-connecting the city fabric to the river in a seamless and engaging manner. These meticulously planned spaces not only provide residents and visitors with uninterrupted views of the Elbe and the bustling port but also facilitate a dynamic interplay between the promenade and adjacent neighborhoods through strategic access points and pedestrian crossings. The inclusion of a restaurant and food kiosks within the flood protection structure adds to the promenade’s appeal as a destination, offering panoramic dining experiences. This project exemplifies how contemporary urban infrastructure can successfully embody resilience, functionality, and aesthetic appeal, setting a benchmark for future developments worldwide.

3. Seoul's Cheonggyecheon riverfront

The Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration Project in Seoul, South Korea, is a monumental endeavor that epitomizes the transformative power of urban ecological renewal and landscape architecture. Initially conceived as a corrective measure to tackle environmental degradation and enhance urban livability, the project ambitiously replaced a formerly elevated freeway with a revitalized 3.6-mile-long stream corridor. By reintroducing the historic Cheonggyecheon Stream to the heart of Seoul, this initiative has not only resurrected a buried natural watercourse but has also reestablished a vital ecological and social artery through the city’s densely built environment. Completed in 2005 with a landscape budget of around $120 million USD as part of a total $380 million USD investment, the project covers approximately 100 acres and spans a significant stretch of Seoul’s urban fabric.

This restoration has yielded remarkable environmental, social, and economic benefits, fundamentally altering the character and dynamics of its urban surroundings. Environmentally, it provides robust flood protection capable of handling a 200-year flood event, significantly enhances biodiversity within the city, and mitigates urban heat island effects, contributing to a more temperate urban climate. Socially, it has boosted public transit usage, attracted thousands of daily visitors, including international tourists, thereby enriching the social fabric and vibrancy of Seoul. Economically, the project has precipitated a substantial increase in land values nearby, spurred business growth, and enhanced the overall economic vitality of the Cheonggyecheon area. The Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration stands as a beacon of sustainable urban redevelopment, showcasing how integrating ecological principles with urban infrastructure can revitalize cities, benefiting both people and the planet.

4. Hoosic River Flood Chute Naturalization

In an inspiring collaboration aimed at harmonizing human ingenuity with the rhythms of the natural world, the Hoosic River Flood Chute Naturalization project in North Adams, Massachusetts, embodies a transformative vision. Spearheaded by the Hoosic River Revival and supported by an ensemble of experts in landscape architecture, civil engineering, ecology, and urban planning, the project sought to mend the severed connection between the city and its fluvial lifeline. Historically, the North and South Branch of the Hoosic River propelled North Adams into industrial prosperity, yet their unpredictability necessitated drastic measures. The construction of concrete flood chutes by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, while effective in flood management, disrupted local ecosystems and distanced the community from their river. The project, completed in June 2015, aimed to rekindle this lost relationship through ecological restoration and innovative flood defense strategies, thereby reinventing the rivers as vibrant habitats and recreational areas.

The restoration approach was ingeniously designed by SASAKI Associares to be informed by nature itself, focusing on re-establishing the river’s historic floodplain connection and utilizing natural processes for flood mitigation. This method not only promises a resilient flood defense mechanism but also fosters rich riparian habitats, enhancing the biodiversity of the region. The pilot phase of the project leveraged public lands along the South Branch to showcase a suite of community-driven enhancements, including recreational pathways and ecological improvements that link key city landmarks and promote a unified urban experience. The initiative not only revitalizes the natural environment but also supports North Adams’ burgeoning identity as a cultural and recreational hub, demonstrating the potential of thoughtful, ecologically centered design to redefine urban spaces and their relationship with the natural world.

5. Cincinnati John G. and Phyllis W. Smale Riverfront Park

The Cincinnati John G. and Phyllis W. Smale Riverfront Park  by SASAKI Associates  stands as a testament to the transformative power of public-private partnerships, bridging the gap between the vibrant urban life of downtown Cincinnati and the tranquil flows of the Ohio River. Spanning 32 acres along the water’s edge, this expansive green space was brought to life through the collaborative efforts of the Cincinnati Park Board, supported by both community engagement and significant private contributions. Completed in 2010, the park not only serves as a lush, welcoming front door to the city but also as a versatile venue for a plethora of activities ranging from leisurely strolls along its pathways to large-scale events drawing visitors from across the nation. The design of the park thoughtfully incorporates the surrounding city landmarks, including the historical Roebling Bridge and major sports venues, creating a cohesive urban landscape that celebrates Cincinnati’s architectural heritage and its natural surroundings. 

6. Buji River in Luohu, Shenzhen

The revitalization of the Buji River in Luohu, Shenzhen, serves as a pioneering example of how strategic urban planning and design can transform an environmentally challenged urban waterway into a vital urban watershed, fostering not only ecological resilience but also socio-economic revitalization. Faced with the dual challenges of deteriorating water quality and the increasing threat of climate extremes, such as droughts and heavy rainfall, the Luohu government embarked on a visionary project. Through strategic investments in transport and open space networks, alongside concerted efforts to improve water management and quality, this initiative has charted a course toward redefining Luohu’s identity, weaving together the district’s historical fabric with its future aspirations.

Central to the transformation of the Buji River from a constrained urban drainage canal to a vibrant urban resource was the implementation of a multi-tiered strategy focused on separation, revitalization, and integration of various water systems. Initially, wastewater and stormwater systems were separated into three distinct spatial structures: the Riverfront, the Riverbed, and the River Basin. This separation allowed for targeted cleanup and restoration efforts, ensuring a controlled and phased improvement in water quality. Over time, these systems are envisaged to merge into a cohesive, integrated water management system, reinstating the river as the central artery of a green-blue network throughout Luohu. This network not only aims to enhance the river’s capacity to manage water but also to elevate its role as a catalyst for urban quality, interlinking small squares, parks, and amphibious boulevards into a coherent public realm. These interventions, designed to enhance both the functional and aesthetic qualities of the river, promise to redefine the urban landscape, offering residents and visitors alike a diverse range of accessible landscapes—from mountains and rivers to parks and urban plazas—within minutes, thereby encapsulating the transformative power of integrated urban and environmental planning.

7. The Merwedekanaalzone, Utrecht, Netherlands

The Merwedekanaalzone, specifically Zone 5 in Utrecht, Netherlands, represents a groundbreaking urban redevelopment project that aims to redefine the concept of sustainable urban living for the future. Spanning 24 hectares, this ambitious project is set to accommodate approximately 12,000 residents, positioning it as the largest development zone within the rapidly growing city of Utrecht. This initiative is a direct response to the pressing need for sustainable development that caters to contemporary lifestyles while effectively addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change.

The collaborative efforts underpinning the project are noteworthy, involving a broad spectrum of stakeholders including the municipality of Utrecht, multiple landowners, experts, and other key players. This extensive collaboration has given rise to a comprehensive plan designed to introduce around 6,000 new dwellings to the southwestern part of the city. The strategic location of Kanaleneiland, with its strong connections to Utrecht Central Station, underscores its pivotal role in meeting the city’s burgeoning housing needs. The design ethos for the public spaces within this district is particularly innovative, aiming to preserve the industrial heritage of the island while simultaneously showcasing its climate-adaptive and forward-thinking character.

8. The Golden Horn Waterfront Sports Park and Public Space

The Golden Horn Waterfront Sports Park and Public Space by, masterminded by architects Ervin Garip and Banu Garip, stands as a sterling exemplar of urban regeneration, melding athletic vitality with public inclusivity along the historic shores of Istanbul’s Golden Horn. Awarded 1st Prize in the “Istanbul Golden Horn Coasts Urban Design Competition,” this project spans an impressive 230,000 square meters, revitalizing a crucial segment of the city’s waterfront. At its heart, the development seeks to repair the estranged relationship between the city and its waterway, a divide deepened by industrialization, urban interventions, and infrastructural developments that overlooked the area’s historical essence and communal significance.

Key to this urban rejuvenation is the careful reimagining of public spaces to foster both leisure and sport, underpinned by a holistic design approach that prioritizes continuity, identity, and environmental integration. The project’s commitment to a “fluid urban design” is manifest in its seamless blend of sports areas, gathering spaces, a skatepark, and seating areas, all designed to foster direct interactions with the waterfront. This strategic layout not only enriches the public realm but also leverages the Golden Horn’s environmental and historical backdrop to animate daily life and catalyze social activities.

9. The Rhine Embankment Promenade in Düsseldorf

The Rhine Embankment Promenade in Düsseldorf is a splendid example of urban redevelopment and architectural foresight, seamlessly blending leisure, culture, and natural beauty along the banks of one of Europe’s most significant rivers. Designed by architect Niklaus Fritschi between 1990 and 1997, this promenade has transformed the city’s relationship with the Rhine, turning a once car-dominated waterfront into a vibrant pedestrian haven. The promenade’s creation was intricately linked to the construction of the Rhine bank tunnel, an ambitious infrastructure project that rerouted vehicular traffic underground, reclaiming the riverbanks for public enjoyment and ecological restoration.

Stretching for one-and-a-half kilometers between the historical Old Town and the Rhine, the promenade offers both locals and visitors a serene escape from the urban bustle. It features a myriad of attractions, from the gentle breezes and stunning sunsets that can be enjoyed along its length, to the diverse gastronomic experiences available at the Kasematten. The open staircase and city beaches that emerge during the summer months add to the promenade’s charm, offering spaces for relaxation, socialization, and recreation amidst panoramic river views.

10. Sydney’s Waterfront Development

The Barangaroo Harbour Park Design Competition has heralded a new era in the conceptualization and development of urban waterfront spaces, with the First Nations-led AKIN team emerging victorious. This ensemble, an amalgamation of Indigenous and non-Indigenous expertise including Yerrabingin, Architectus, Flying Fish Blue, Jacob Nash Design, and Studio Chris Fox, with Arup serving as engineering consultants, has been tasked with the transformative mission of reimagining 1.85 hectares of reclaimed land in Central Barangaroo. This endeavor is not just a landscape project but a profound act of cultural and ecological reconciliation and regeneration, embedded within the 33-hectare precinct currently under development in Sydney, Australia.

AKIN’s vision for the Barangaroo Harbour Park is deeply rooted in the rich tapestry of the area’s original use by the Gadigal people as a place for hunting, fishing, canoeing, swimming, and gathering, stretching back over 7,000 years. Their design philosophy is firmly planted in the essence of Country, aiming to rejuvenate ecological systems, enrich local biodiversity with native flora, and manage water sustainably through innovative filtration processes before its return to the Harbour. Beyond its green credentials, the project is distinguished by its commitment to fostering connections and celebrating the enduring culture of the area’s Indigenous peoples. Large-scale public artworks symbolizing water, wind, and the moon serve as focal points for storytelling, gathering, and ceremonies, reinforcing the park’s role as a nexus of cultural continuity and environmental stewardship. Through such thoughtful integration of design and function, AKIN’s proposal promises to transform the Barangaroo waterfront into a dynamic, inclusive space that honors its ancient stories while looking forward to a sustainable future.

11. Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation project

The Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation project, spearheaded by OZER/URGER Architects, represents a groundbreaking approach to the revitalization of Antalya’s waterfront. Unveiled in 2018, this project transforms an 8,000 square meter stretch of the Konyaalti coastline into a multifaceted urban landscape that prioritizes pedestrian accessibility, ecological sustainability, and cultural vibrancy. By reimagining the relationship between the city and its waterfront, the project seeks to enhance the quality of life for residents and visitors alike, while respecting and integrating the natural beauty and ecological features of the Mediterranean shore.

The project’s design philosophy centers on reducing the dominance of the highway that previously separated the coastal area from the city, thereby fostering a stronger connection between the residential neighborhoods and the coastline. This was achieved through the creation of thematic zones that offer a diverse array of recreational, cultural, and sporting activities, effectively making the coastline an extension of the city’s public space. The inclusion of modular urban landscape elements, such as urban furniture and plantation landscaping elements, adds functional and aesthetic value, transforming the coastline into a lively and engaging public realm. With a focus on pedestrian-friendly pathways, improved public transport, and bicycle infrastructure, the Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation project sets a new standard for coastal urban design, emphasizing sustainability, accessibility, and community engagement.

12. Sabarmati Riverfront Development

The Sabarmati Riverfront Development (SRFD) project in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, stands as a monumental example of urban renewal and sustainable development, spearheaded to transform the relationship between the city and its historic river. Initiated in 1996, this comprehensive project sought to address several critical issues facing the city, including frequent flooding, environmental degradation, and the encroachment of the river’s natural course due to rapid urban expansion. By adopting an innovative self-financing model, the SRFD project has managed to alleviate the financial burden on the government while embarking on an ambitious mission to rejuvenate the Sabarmati River as the lifeline of Ahmedabad.

Central to the SRFD’s success is its focus on creating extensive public spaces, reclaiming over 85% of the riverfront land for free and open use. This initiative has introduced more than 20 km of pedestrian promenades along each bank, alongside a 29 km long road network, enhancing connectivity and accessibility to the riverfront from the city. The transformation has not only protected Ahmedabad from the threats of flooding but also revitalized its urban landscape, making the riverfront a hub for recreational activities, green parks, and gardens. The project has reinvigorated social and traditional activities, with facilities like a modern Dhobi Ghat and a vibrant Riverfront Market, fostering a sense of community and belonging among the city’s residents. Furthermore, the relocation of over 10,000 families from flood-prone areas to formal housing underscores the project’s commitment to improving living conditions while respecting the environment and heritage of Ahmedabad. Through these multifaceted efforts, the SRFD project exemplifies how thoughtful urban planning and community engagement can harmoniously blend to create sustainable and lively urban spaces.

13. Tel Aviv's Central Promenade Renewal

The renewal of Tel Aviv’s Central Promenade by Mayslits Kassif Architects marks a significant transformation in the urban and cultural landscape of Tel Aviv, Israel. Completed in 2018, this project has redefined the interaction between the city and its waterfront, historically separated by an elevated boardwalk since the late 1930s. By introducing a seamless transition between the city fabric and the sandy shores of the Mediterranean, the renovation fosters a new level of accessibility and engagement with the seafront, enhancing the urban experience for residents and visitors alike.

The project’s innovative design features continuous sitting-stairs and ramps along the waterfront, converting previously disused rooftops of beach buildings into inviting urban balconies, thus repairing the physical and symbolic break between Tel Aviv and its beach. The promenade has been expanded toward the sea with terraced sitting platforms and ample shaded areas, integrating recreational spaces equipped with sports facilities, game courts, playgrounds, and relaxation zones under the palm trees. This thoughtful approach not only minimizes the environmental impact but also ensures universal accessibility, creating a vibrant ‘new ground’ that embodies the dynamic spirit of Tel Aviv.

The Central Promenade now serves as a bustling public domain that welcomes over 9 million visitors annually, a testament to its success given Israel’s population of about 9 million. It has become a crucible of urban life, where the diverse tapestry of Tel Aviv’s society – from acrobats to joggers to families – converges in a shared social space. This transformation not only enhances the city’s relationship with its primary natural asset, the sea, but also fosters a sense of community and openness, contributing to the city’s reputation as a vibrant and inclusive urban environment.

14. Victoria on the River (VOTR) in Hamilton, New Zealand,

Victoria on the River (VOTR) in Hamilton, New Zealand, represents a landmark urban design project completed in 2018, which skillfully bridges the central business district (CBD) of Hamilton with the natural beauty of the Waikato River. For years, the potential to create a significant link between the city’s urban core and its prime natural asset, the Waikato River, remained unrealized. VOTR has effectively seized this opportunity, establishing not only a visual and physical connection but also a vibrant public space that enhances urban life.

The project was meticulously designed to serve dual purposes. On one hand, it acts as a dynamic destination in its own right, inviting people to pause, interact, and savor the stunning river views. On the other, it functions as a strategic link that cohesively integrates the varying elevations of the lower river path, the upper promenade, and the city’s main street. This dual functionality addresses a long-standing disconnect within the urban fabric of Hamilton, offering both a serene retreat and a vital pedestrian thoroughfare.

15. Orla do Guaíba Urban Park in Porto Alegre, Brazil

The Orla do Guaíba Urban Park in Porto Alegre, Brazil, masterfully conceptualized and executed by Jaime Lerner Arquitetos Associados, stands as a testament to the transformative power of urban design. Completed in 2018, this extensive project stretches across 56.7 hectares along 1.5 kilometers of the Lake Guaíba shore. It represents a significant step by the Porto Alegre City Hall to rejuvenate and return one of the city’s most precious natural assets to its citizens, addressing longstanding issues of safety, abandonment, and environmental degradation.

This urban and environmental regeneration initiative has markedly improved the quality of life for Porto Alegre’s inhabitants, fostering social, economic, and ecological benefits. By bridging people, culture, history, and nature, the park has created a virtuous circle of mutual appreciation and interaction. Strategically located adjacent to the city’s central area, it offers easy accessibility, enhancing the seamlessness between the urban fabric and the natural landscape.

The park is a beacon of urban integration, combining elements of the natural and built environments to encourage community gathering and enjoyment. Facilities include bars, cafes, sports areas, and restrooms, transforming what was once a municipal burden into a valuable asset that adds significant value while reducing costs. The project’s architectural and landscape design takes full advantage of the existing topography and natural scenery, utilizing materials like concrete, glass, wood, and steel to ensure an aesthetic of lightness and integration with the environment. The design mimics the water’s movement, curving gently along the terrain and enhancing the estuary’s scenic beauty with the addition of bleachers that provide the best views of the renowned sunset.

These case studies highlight a range of strategies and outcomes, from integrating ecological considerations and public accessibility to fostering social and economic revitalization along urban waterfronts. Each project reflects a unique approach to dealing with the challenges and opportunities presented by their specific contexts.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, urban regeneration strategies and place development in contemporary tokyo: the case of shibuya station area.

Journal of Place Management and Development

ISSN : 1753-8335

Article publication date: 20 October 2021

Issue publication date: 27 January 2022

This paper aims to shed light on current initiatives of urban regeneration around the Shibuya Station area within the context of contemporary Tokyo’s place development strategies. The objectives are twofold: to illustrate the characteristics of the plans and the planning approaches framing the interventions; and to identify the strategies employed to reshape the cityscape.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a case study approach, this paper combines data from historical and archival research, as well as policy documents and plans. These are supplemented by data from extensive fieldwork undertaken between 2015 and 2019 to critically assess and interpret the implemented policies and the outcomes of the regeneration.

The paper provides insight into the ongoing urban regeneration around the Shibuya Station area and identifies five key themes that summarise the strategies employed to transform the urban landscape in the area. Despite the apparent success and some innovations introduced by the redevelopment project, critical issues remain–especially around the privatisation of public space and the lack of a holistic approach to sustainability.

Originality/value

The paper examines a significant and timely case of urban regeneration. By critically discussing the implications of the redevelopment around Shibuya Station in the context of Tokyo’s current place development strategies, the study highlights the importance of an inclusive notion of sustainable development and contributes to the debate around Japanese urbanism and urban regeneration.

• Sustainability
• Place Development
• Urban Regeneration

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments.

Reggiani, M. (2022), "Urban regeneration strategies and place development in contemporary Tokyo: the case of Shibuya Station area", Journal of Place Management and Development , Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPMD-04-2021-0046

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• Published: 02 January 2024

Exploring stakeholder engagement in urban village renovation projects through a mixed-method approach to social network analysis: a case study of Tianjin

• Xiaoru Zheng 1 ,
• Chunling Sun 1 &
• Jingjing Liu 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  27 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Complex networks
• Social policy

The stakeholder relationship network in urban village renovation projects is highly complex, exhibiting dynamic changes at different stages. Therefore, exploring the characteristics of the interaction networks among stakeholders at each stage and the changes in their role positioning is crucial for achieving collaborative governance involving multiple stakeholders. By employing a mixed research methodology comprising single-case analysis and social network analysis, this study aimed to explore stakeholder networks’ characteristics and evolution patterns at each stage of the renovation project. Moreover, it seeks to identify breakthroughs for collaborative governance. The research revealed that the main constraints to stakeholder collaboration in urban village renovation projects are low public participation in the early preparation stage, weak network situation of stakeholders during the demolition and resettlement compensation stage, and significant clique fragmentation during the development and construction implementation stages. This study recommended approaches such as transforming the development model, establishing public status, leveraging the resource-driving advantages of core stakeholders, and establishing a network-sharing platform. Through these means, various stakeholders could be guided to be effectively involved in the entire project construction process, leading to deep cooperation among multiple stakeholders.

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As China’s urbanization accelerates, cities are gradually shifting towards redeveloping existing assets. Urban village renovation has become an important initiative for enhancing high-quality urban development (Pan and Du, 2021 ). Researchers estimated that the investment scale in urban renewal would be expected to reach 9.2 trillion yuan by 2030, accounting for approximately 11% of gross fixed capital formation (Xu, 2021 ). However, urban villages, as non-standardized construction areas, present prominent challenges compared to typical urban renewal projects, including complex stakeholder interest, unclear property rights, diverse transformation goals, and weak governance levels. Moreover, the distinct demands of various stakeholders, such as the government, developers, and residents, can lead to severe negative impacts if mishandled (Yu et al. 2019 , Zhu et al. 2022 ). In the practice of urban village renovation, incidents like violent demolitions and mass protests are not uncommon (Mai et al. 2022 , Yu et al. 2017 ). The coordinative nature of stakeholder relationships plays an essential role in urban village renovation projects (Cao and Deng, 2021 ). Different stakeholders are not independent but interdependent and play diverse roles in decision-making in the process of urban village renovation (Zhuang et al. 2019 ). It has also been shown that collaborative governance among stakeholders is key to addressing management issues in urban village renovation (Li et al. 2020 , Liu et al. 2021 ). Therefore, clarifying the complex role of various stakeholders in renovation projects and exploring diverse collaborative governance models become crucial aspects of urban village renovation projects (Chen et al. 2022 , Wang et al. 2021 ).

Research on stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation projects mainly focuses on three aspects. The first one is the status and roles of stakeholders. For instance, The demands and role characteristics of key stakeholders, including the government, developers, and residents, play a decisive role in urban village renovation projects (He et al. 2023 , Liu et al. 2021 ). The second aspect is the stakeholders and their interrelationships, such as the mechanism on interest distribution (Jiang et al. 2020 , Zhou et al. 2017 , Zhuang et al. 2017 ), mechanism on conflict resolution (Panahi et al. 2017 , Wang et al. 2022 ), stakeholders’ behaviour and game theory (Chu et al. 2020 , Guo et al. 2018 , Zhu et al. 2022 ), and collaborative governance models (Li et al. 2022 , Liu et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, there are concerted efforts in exploring and innovating theoretical foundations and research methodology. Zhuang et al. ( 2019 ) innovatively combined qualitative and quantitative methods. Liu et al. ( 2021 ) expanded the theoretical foundation by integrating stakeholder theory with cooperative theory and symbiosis theory. Zhang et al. ( 2021 ) made a transition from individual analysis to network analysis. Current studies have discussed the status and role of stakeholders, their interrelationships, and theoretical approaches in urban village renovation. However, they have overlooked that the urban village renovation project is a dynamic process involving multiple stages, at each of which the composition and importance of stakeholders are different (Aaltonen and Kujala, 2010 , Antillon et al. 2018 ). Moreover, the studies on interaction networks and role positions among stakeholders at various stages during renovation projects are limited. Therefore, it is essential to initiate a comprehensive analysis of stakeholder collaborative relationships and role functional positioning from the perspective of the entire life cycle of the urban village renovation project (Wu et al. 2020 , Yu et al. 2019 ). This approach serves as a necessary prerequisite for a deeper understanding of stakeholders’ rights and responsibilities, intending to overcome the dilemma of “governance failure”, leverage the advantages of the leading resources, and achieve win-win collaboration among multiple stakeholders.

Based on the preceding analysis, this study employed stakeholder theory and social network analysis to conduct a case study on an urban village renovation project in Tianjin, China. The objectives of this study are to address specific inquiries within the urban village renovation project, such as identifying stakeholders at each project stage, analyzing their interactions, examining variations in roles and functions across stages, and exploring strategies for achieving multi-stakeholder governance.

Literature review

This section consists of four subsections. First, it describes the implementation challenges, international experience, and the main processes of urban village renovation projects. Second, it reviews previous studies on stakeholders and their interrelationships in urban village renovation projects. Next, the application of Social Network Analysis (SNA) methods and their relevance to the research questions in this paper are presented. Last, the gap in previous research is summarized, leading to this paper’s content and main contributions.

Urban village renovation and the life cycle of urban village renovation projects

Urban villages represent a typical urban challenge arising from China’s rapid urbanization, reflecting the legacy of the urban-rural dual land system (Zeng et al. 2022 ). Within these urban villages, numerous private residences and commercial facilities have been built to foster the growth of the rental economy, leading to limited urban space expansion and a deviation from regional planning and positioning (Chen et al. 2023 ). Recognizing the significance of these issues, the Chinese government has issued a series of policies and guidance documents to promote the optimization of urban spatial structure and enhance overall quality. However, due to the complexity of property rights, the diversity of functions, and the plurality of stakeholders, the governance of informal settlements, particularly in urban villages, remains highly complex and challenging (Paula et al. 2023 , Wei et al. 2022 ).

The urbanization trend in countries around the world indicated that even developed countries with 300 years of urbanization experience had been plagued with informal housing issues for more than a century (Chen et al. 2023 , Marques, 2016 ). Urbanization in the United Kingdom underwent a transition from government-led slum clearance movements to a gradual shift towards profit-oriented market operations (Banks and Carpenter, 2017 , Becker, 1951 ). Currently, the UK government incorporates social, economic, and environmental considerations into urban renewal decisions, achieving renewal goals through the coordinated efforts of government, market, and community (Huang and Liu, 2018 ). Singapore, evolving from a slum in the 1960s to a current global city, offered many successful lessons for other countries to learn from (Li, 2021 ), such as establishing dedicated urban renewal departments, attracting private funding, emphasizing historical and cultural preservation, and encouraging public participation (Tang, 2023 , Yeoh and Huang, 1996 ). Brazil, as a developing country undergoing urbanization, transformed large-scale demolition into inclusive in-situ upgrading (Annie and Greenlee, 2017 , Marques, 2016 ). Systematic institutional design and refined implementation strategies played a crucial role in Brazil’s diverse governance of informal housing (Hong and Chen, 2023 , Maria and Alvaro, 2019 ).

Based on international experience, despite the distinct development context of China’s urban village renovation compared to other countries, the core essence revolves around exploring the governance path characterized by pluralistic co-management, inclusiveness, and fairness. Drawing lessons from the urbanization development experience of other countries and exploring a renovation and governance path that aligns with China’s urban-rural dichotomy are key factors for the successful implementation of urban village renovation projects.

The categorization of the life cycle stages in urban renewal projects remains a subject of debate across various research perspectives. For example, to manage the risks in old residential renovation, Huo et al. ( 2023 ) divided the project into four stages: decision-making, design, construction, operation, and maintenance. Cui et al. ( 2021 ) divided the project cycle into demolition, construction, operation and maintenance, and re-retirement stages to quantify the energy consumption of different retrofit strategies. (Qin and Miao, 2015 ), studying the development process of public participation in urban village renovation, segmented the project cycle into three stages: pre-establishment, mid-term consultation, and demolition and commencement of construction. The demolition stage stands out as a unique stage in urban village renovation projects, characterized by highly complex interrelationships among stakeholders (Yu et al. 2017 ). Zhuang et al. ( 2019 ) focused on the decision-making stage and categorized it into seven stages: project application, plan development, field survey, etc. Although the names and subdivisions of the project stages varied based on the research questions, the study of South et al. ( 2018 ) found that all projects encompassed four stages throughout their life cycle, i.e., project initiation, organizational preparation, project implementation and project completion.

Stakeholders and their interrelationships in urban village renovation projects

Freeman ( 1984 ) originally introduced the concept of stakeholders, defining them as “groups without whose support an organization cannot exist”. Subsequently, scholars across diverse disciplines, including economics, sociology, and management, expanded and adjusted stakeholder definitions within their respective fields. This led to stakeholders being broadly defined as any group or individual capable of influencing or being influenced by the achievement of organizational goals (Magill et al. 2015 , Shah and Guild, 2022 , Uribe et al. 2018 , Zarghami and Dumrak, 2021 ).

As an interdisciplinary theory, stakeholder theory has been widely applied in urban village renovation projects, primarily focusing on the analysis of government, enterprises, and residents (Li, 2012 , Lin et al. 2022 , Liu et al. 2018 ). For instance, He et al. ( 2023 ) explored the role and influence of local governments in a multi-stakeholder context, identifying three types of government involvement: government-led incentive, government-regulated coordination, and government-operated coalition. Du et al. ( 2022 ) focused on resident satisfaction and emphasized the importance of “social networks and social protection,” “social reciprocity and trust,” “social participation and accessibility,” and “community cohesion” in enhancing resident satisfaction. Meanwhile, some scholars discovered that social organizations, planners, and news media, while not core stakeholders, also play an essential role in implementing urban village renovation projects (Li et al. 2022 , Li et al. 2020 , Priemus, 2006 ).

Different stakeholders exhibit significant differences in their demands (He et al. 2019 ). Coordinating diverse stakeholder relationships has become a focal point of urban village renovation studies (Liu et al. 2021 ). Mai et al. ( 2022 ) investigated the interactive relationships and their responses to social risks among residents, social organizations, local government, and developers. They found that “residents’ needs,” “cooperation status,” and “level of trust” are crucial for risk management, effectively leveraging China’s collectivist culture to reduce social risks. Wu et al. ( 2020 ), using the renovation of Putuo District in Shanghai as an example, explored the rights, interests, and knowledge of 42 stakeholders in the project decision-making process to deepen the comprehensive understanding of stakeholders and construct a decision-making matrix for land redevelopment. Zhou et al. ( 2022 ) argued that the collision of value among diverse stakeholders is the catalyst for value conflicts. They established an analysis framework combining Stakeholder Analysis (SA), Social Network Analysis (SNA), and the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ) to identify key value conflicts and stakeholders, thus driving the successful implementation of the projects. Mi ( 2021 ) furthermore integrated stakeholders with the theory of collaborative governance, analyzing the influencing factors of stakeholder cooperation in urban village renovation projects under the principles of co-building, co-governance, and sharing.

Social network analysis: an effective method for analyzing stakeholder relationships

Social network analysis (SNA) originated in the 1930s as a quantitative analysis method (Moreno, 1934 ). Integrating mathematical and computational applications, SNA is utilized to analyze complex interdependencies among various elements and comprehend the characteristics and implications of these relationship structures (Dowding, 1995 ). As an effective method, SNA has been widely applied in sociology, psychology, economics, and organizational management (Yuan et al. 2021 , Zhang et al. 2022 ).

SNA has significant advantages in the study of stakeholder relationships (Wang et al. 2021 ). Firstly, SNA depicts the stakeholder relationship network by the interconnections among stakeholders, providing a more intuitive observation of their links and interactions (Lienert et al. 2013 ). Secondly, SNA situates individual stakeholders within the entire stakeholder network, offering a clear view of the collective characteristics of stakeholders in the relationship network (Leticia et al. 2017 ). Finally, SNA quantifies the importance of individual stakeholders in the stakeholder network and their key functional roles.

Given the advantages of SNA, using SNA to analyze project stakeholder relationships has become a significant trend in the field of project management (Luo et al. 2023 , Wang et al. 2021 ). For instance, Wang et al. ( 2020 ) employed SNA to construct a stakeholder network in BIM-delivered projects, analyzing the characteristics of stakeholder relationships and identifying the core stakeholders in BIM project applications. Zhang et al. ( 2021 ) compared and analyzed complex stakeholder behaviour in urban renewal projects in Shenzhen and Chongqing using SNA. According to their analysis results, they proposed corresponding governance strategies, such as optimizing the negotiation platform for urban renewal, increasing multi-stakeholder participation, and implementing policies to regulate participant behaviour. Seyed and Esmail ( 2023 ) emphasized the significant role of stakeholder management in lake restoration programs, using SNA to quantify the roles of stakeholders and enhance the management system of lake restoration projects. Clearly, SNA has accumulated extensive research outcomes in the field of project stakeholder relations. It provides a clearer understanding of the roles of various stakeholders in the project, allowing for the leverage of their respective resources advantages to improve project performance(Cook and Gerbasi, 2006 ; Zhuang et al. 2019 ).

Stakeholders in urban village renovation projects form a complex organizational structure with social network characteristics (Jin et al. 2023 ). Using SNA to quantitatively analyze the complex relationships among stakeholders in urban village renovation projects has significant advantages. Therefore, this study intends to employ SNA to analyze the interaction among diverse stakeholders. Consequently, it will offer a clearer understanding of the relationship dynamics among stakeholders in urban village renovation projects, as well as the individual stakeholder’s role and position during the implementation of the renovation.

Research gaps

The present literature has revealed two notable trends. Firstly, research about stakeholders is shifting towards diverse stakeholder participation and collaborative governance (Li et al. 2022 ). Additionally, characterizing and analyzing stakeholder relationships from a network perspective has become a novel research approach (Jin et al. 2023 ). However, existing studies have explored the interaction among multiple stakeholders from a static network perspective, lacking in-depth research on the evolution of stakeholder relationships at different stages of urban village renovation projects. Therefore, further identification of research gaps is warranted.

First of all, there is a limited amount of research that adequately considers the relationships among diverse stakeholders in urban village renovation projects. Previous studies indicate that in the new era, urban village renovation projects involve not only core stakeholders such as the government, developers, and the public. Coordinating relationships among diverse stakeholders has become a key factor in the successful implementation of the current urban village renovation projects (Mai et al. 2022 ). The collaborative governance model is the primary objective for establishing stakeholder cooperation in urban village renovation projects (Mi, 2021 ; Liu et al. 2021 ). Therefore, paying attention to the relationship among diverse stakeholders in urban village renovation projects is crucial for their successful execution. Moreover, constructing a stakeholder relationship network from a social network perspective proves to be more effective in quantifying stakeholder relationships than other methods.

Secondly, stakeholder relationships have rarely been explored in stages in previous studies. The urban village renovation projects are characterized by a lengthy project cycle, involvement of diverse stakeholders, and complex interest relationships (Zeng et al. 2022 ). The composition and significance of stakeholders vary at each stage of the project (Zhuang et al. 2019 ). However, existing research has rarely considered how stakeholder relationships and their roles evolve across different stages of urban village renovation projects. Therefore, examining stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation projects from a comprehensive life cycle perspective holds practical significance for promoting stakeholder cooperation.

As discussed in the preceding paragraphs, this study conducted a case study on the urban village renovation project in Tianjin, China. Taking a comprehensive life cycle perspective and employing the Social Network Analysis (SNA) method, this paper thoroughly analyzed the evolution characteristics of stakeholder networks and the patterns of role evolution at different stages of the project, thereby addressing the current research gap. This study not only provided an overall understanding of the interactive dynamics among stakeholders across various stages of the urban village renovation project but also provided clearer insights into the position and role of each stakeholder during different stages. Consequently, it opens the black box of stakeholder relations in the urban village renovation project, enabling stakeholders to leverage their resource advantages and enhance the project’s governance efficiency.

Materials and methodology

As shown in Fig. 1 , this study consisted of four main steps. Initially, stakeholders in the case project were identified and categorized through field research and expert interviews. Subsequently, a questionnaire survey was used to determine the strength of project stakeholders’ relationships and formulate a relationship matrix. Following this, the social network analysis method was applied to analyze the overall network characteristics of stakeholders, the group structure characteristics, and the evolutionary patterns of central roles throughout the entire process. Lastly, based on the analysis results, the dilemma issues of collaborative stakeholder governance are identified, and targeted countermeasures are proposed.

Research process.

This study utilized a mixed research approach, combining a single case study and social network analysis. On the one hand, single-case studies are inclined to distort behavioural patterns from complex phenomena, providing an opportunity to deepen the understanding of such phenomena, especially in multi-stage longitudinal studies (Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007 ). Through the single case study method, this research tracked and observed the behavioural changes of stakeholders at each stage, capturing the characteristics of the stakeholder relationships at each stage and elaborating on their behaviours with primary data. On the other hand, social network analysis is a quantitative research method that combines graphical and mathematical models to analyze the positions and interrelationships of social members in a network (Koene, 1984 ). Exploring stakeholder interaction at each stage of the urban village renovation project from the social network perspective allows for a more comprehensive and objective portrayal of overall structural characteristics, group evolution characteristics, and node function evolution law in each stage (Mok et al. 2017 ). In conclusion, the mixed research method combining a single case study and social network analysis is well-suited for studying stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation projects. Leveraging the advantages and characteristics of each method, it contributes to a deeper understanding of stakeholder interactions and role characteristics.

This study used UCINET 6.0 to analyze the stakeholder network of the urban village renovation project and employed NETDRAW software to create the relationship diagram. To improve stakeholder collaboration, analyzing stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation projects involves examining the overall structure, group characteristics, and participant status. Network density and average node distance are commonly used indicators to evaluate the overall network characteristics of stakeholder networks (Liu, 2009 ). To further explore the interactions between stakeholders, core-periphery and small clique analyses were selected to investigate stakeholder groups in this study. Through core-periphery and clique analyses, it is possible to identify core stakeholders at each project stage and determine which stakeholder relationships are more closely related (Liu Fang, 2015 ). In addition, the authors applied three frequently used centrality measures to analyze the stakeholder network, including degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and closeness centrality (Wei et al. 2022 ). Centrality analysis provides a clearer understanding of the roles and major contributions of stakeholders in the urban village renovation process. Detailed descriptions and formulas for each indicator are tabulated in Table 1 .

This study selected an urban village renovation project in Beichen District, Tianjin, China (refer to Fig. 2 for the location map). Before the renovation, the area primarily consisted of bungalows with dilapidated houses, outdated infrastructure, lagging surrounding facilities, and inadequate road construction. Security issues, as well as hygiene and fire hazards, were prevalent (see Fig. 3 for pictures before renovation). The government launched the project in 2005 to improve the living environment for residents. However, due to the difficulties in negotiation regarding the demolition and relocation, the demolition and relocation work of the project gradually commenced only in 2015. The first batch of villagers successfully relocated back to their homes in 2021. Currently, more than 3,900 housing units have been completed, with 1307 units under construction. It is expected that the villagers will move in by early 2024. Figure 4 illustrates the overall layout after the completion of the project, showing a significant improvement in residents’ living environment. Based on the construction focus of the project and the characteristics of stakeholder stages, the project was divided into four stages: Preliminary Preparation stage (PP), Demolition and Relocation Compensation stage (DC), Development, Construction and Implementation stage (CI), and Post-Maintenance and Operation stage (MO).

Location map of Tianjin Beichen District urban village renovation.

Pictures of the project before renovation.

Pictures of the project after renovation.

The main reasons for selecting this case are as follows. (1) Representative development mode: The project adopts a mode characterized by government-led, village-enterprise collaboration and market-oriented operation. The government implements the urban village renovation project, with the construction unit responsible for demolition and relocation work and compensating the villagers. Currently, this development mode is widely applied in urban village renovation projects across most Chinese cities. (2) Complexity of stakeholder relationships: The project includes stakeholders at various government levels, developers, villagers, constructors, and other stakeholders with complex relationships. (3) Data accessibility: Due to geographic and relational advantages, the authors have been tracking this urban village renovation project since 2014, gaining information on the project’s progress and key details. Multiple in-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders such as government officials, developers, and villagers, accumulating a large amount of material information for this case study. (4) Project lifecycle completeness: The renovation project went through the entire lifecycle from initiation to maintenance and operation, meeting the requirements for a comprehensive lifecycle analysis of the project.

Construction of stakeholder network in urban village renovation project

The stakeholder network consists of nodes (stakeholders) and connections (relationship strength between stakeholders). Therefore, to construct the stakeholder network in the urban village renovation project, it is essential to first identify the stakeholders in the case project. Subsequently, a stakeholder matrix was constructed based on the relationships between stakeholders to facilitate the subsequent analysis of network metrics.

Stakeholders identification

This study employed a combined approach of literature review and focus group interviews to identify stakeholders in urban village renovation projects. This approach ensured both the reliability of stakeholder identification and the enhanced practical relevance of the research outcomes. First of all, stakeholders in the urban village renovation project were systematically categorized through an in-depth literature review, summarizing the primary functions associated with each stakeholder. Subsequently, a group discussion was conducted with six individuals actively involved in the case project, including two government officials from the project’s district, the project manager from the developer, the project manager from the constructor, the manager from the design unit, and the manager from the consultant. Through this collaborative discussion, 11 stakeholders were identified and established as the initial stakeholder list. During the subsequent field research, based on the results obtained from semi-structured interviews with various project participants, two additional stakeholders, i.e. news media and the property management unit, were incorporated into the original list. Consequently, a final list of 13 stakeholders was established, with stakeholders systematically staged according to the practical conditions of the renovation (refer to Table 2 ).

Establishment of stakeholder relationship matrix

The questionnaire was designed to determine the strength of stakeholder relationships. The respondents were selected based on two criteria: (1) they represented one of the 13 stakeholders listed; (2) they had experience participating in urban village renovation projects. Before designing the questionnaire, the method for measuring relationship strength was determined in the first place. Due to the significant roles of rights and interests in stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation (Zhuang et al. 2019 ), this study used “the existence of contractual relationships,” “the existence of subordinate relationships or mutual interests,” and “the existence of communication opportunities” as the criteria to measure relationship strength, assigning “5,” “3,” and “1,” respectively. If none of the above relationships exist, a value of “0” is assigned. The questionnaire consisted of two main parts. The first part contains background information about the respondents filling out the questionnaire. The second part measures and scores the strength of the relationship between the stakeholders.

Questionnaires were distributed both online and offline to project stakeholders in four different periods: June to July 2014, September to October 2016, June to July 2018, and September to October 2021. These four time periods corresponded to different stages of project development. In 2014, 153 questionnaires were distributed, and 142 valid questionnaires were collected. In 2016, 136 questionnaires were distributed, and 130 valid questionnaires were collected. In 2018, 143 questionnaires were distributed, and 136 valid questionnaires were collected. In 2021, 162 questionnaires were distributed, and 152 valid questionnaires were collected. In total, 560 valid questionnaires were collected across the four periods, with a response rate of over 94%. Good reliability and consistency of all collected questionnaires were verified. Finally, this study constructed a four-stage “Stakeholder-Stakeholder” adjacency matrix based on the relationship strength data obtained from the questionnaires. The four-stage “Stakeholder-Stakeholder” adjacency matrix can be found in Supplementary Table S1 , Supplementary Table S2 , Supplementary Table S3 , and Supplementary Table S4 online.

Network characteristics and analysis

Network structure.

The interaction network among different stakeholders at different stages is shown in Fig. 5 , providing a visual presentation of stakeholder interactions during each stage. The nodes in the diagram represent stakeholders, and the connecting lines define the relationships between them. Based on the relation network diagram, this study further measured indicators such as network density and average distance to describe the evolution of the stakeholder relationship network in the project, which are tabulated in Table 3 .

a Collaborative network diagram in the PP stage; b Collaborative network diagram in the DC stage; c Collaborative network diagram in the CI stage; d Collaborative network diagram in the MO stage.

In the preliminary preparation stage (PP stage), the network density is the highest, and the average distance between nodes is the lowest, indicating a close connection among stakeholders in this stage, with efficient information transmission. This is because the government is responsible for coordinating relevant functional units, handling approval procedures such as reporting and project approval, organizing experts for feasibility consultations, identifying cooperation partners, and conducting in-depth public appeals and other preparatory work. In the demolition and resettlement compensation stage (DC stage), the network density is the lowest, and the average distance between nodes is the highest. This is because stakeholders such as financial institutions and legal institutions, although entering the relationship network at this stage, have low connectivity with other stakeholders. During the development, construction, and implementation stage (CI stage), the network density slightly increases compared to the previous stage but remains at a relatively low level, showing that the connections among various stakeholders are not very close. These results indicated that the constructor carried out the main work in this stage. Although stakeholders such as the government, construction management unit, and the public are involved in the CI stage, they mostly play a supervisory role with limited interactions among themselves. The overall network had a “center-periphery” characteristic. In the post-maintenance and operation stage (MO stage), the network connections are simpler, but the network density is higher. This indicated close connections among stakeholders in this stage. The comprehensive network had an “overall coordinated” characteristic.

Overall, the degree of collaboration in the stakeholder relation network showed a “U”-shaped trend, while the efficiency of information transmission showed an inverted “U”-shaped trend. In the PP and MO stages, there were relatively fewer stakeholders, but the connections were tight, resulting in fast information transmission efficiency. In contrast, the intermediate two stages involve a higher number of stakeholders, but the degree of closeness significantly decreases, leading to lower information transmission efficiency.

The evolution characteristics of each project stage in this study are attributed to the following reasons: (1) In PP stage, the government holds significant discourse power and has strong coordination capabilities. It can effectively and efficiently collaborate with other stakeholders to jointly complete the pre-project feasibility study. Additionally, each stakeholder shows a strong willingness to participate due to their interests. (2) The major conflict during the DC stage lies in coordinating the interests between the government and the public. Stakeholders face trust issues and information asymmetry due to disputes over interests. (3) The stakeholders in the CI stage are highly specialized, with clear divisions of labor. However, their business activities are singular, and opportunities for interaction are limited, leading to information barrier challenges. (4) During the MO stage, the formal contractual relationship between the property management unit and the public plays a crucial role in establishing strong connections.

Group structure characteristics

Stakeholder “core-periphery” analysis.

The previous section analyzed the collaborative network characteristics and evolution patterns of each stage from the perspective of the overall network. Nevertheless, it was difficult to precisely identify the “core-periphery” stakeholders in different stages. Therefore, this study used UCINET software to analyze the “core-periphery” structure of the collaborative network in each stage of the urban village renovation project. Stakeholders were classified into two categories based on the mean value of the core degree as the delineation criterion: core stakeholders and peripheral stakeholders. The analysis results are shown in Table 4 .

Generally, the core stakeholders in the relation network of the urban village renovation project have been changing across different stages. The core stakeholders in the collaborative network in the PP stage were the government, consulting service units and construction units, engaging in in-depth discussions on issues such as the feasibility study and design planning of the urban renovation project. In the DC stage, the core stakeholders in the collaborative network were the construction units, the public, and the land consolidation and acquisition units, mainly coordinating matters related to demolition, resettlement, and compensation between the government and the public. The core stakeholders in the collaborative network in the CI stage were the constructors, construction units, and consulting services, with construction becoming the primary goal of this stage. During the MO stage, property management units and the public became the core stakeholders in the collaborative network.

Small clique analysis

The clique phenomenon can not only affect the relationship changes within the clique but often has some driving or inhibiting effects on the overall structure of the collaborative network (Liu Fang, 2015 ). Therefore, in this study, the UCINET software’s iterative correlation convergence algorithm (CONCOR) function was used to analyze the clique phenomena existing in each stage of the urban village renovation project. Figure 6 shows the cohesive subgroup diagram in each stage of the urban village renovation project. This paper calculated the density matrix for each stage of cliques to provide a more in-depth analysis of the relationships within and between small cliques. The network density at each stage was used as the threshold value to obtain the binary matrix. If it is greater than the overall network density, the value is set to 1, indicating a close connection. If it is less than the overall network density, the value is set to 0, indicating loose connections within or between small cliques. The specific results are shown in Table 5 .

According to the small cliques diagram (Fig. 6 ) and the small cliques binary matrix (Table 5 ), there were three small cliques in the PP stage. C1 included the government, construction unit, and the public; C2 included the construction management unit and consulting service unit; and C3 included the community committee and the media. C1, driven by the core roles of the government and construction unit, has close ties with C2 and C3, while the connections between C2 and C3 are relatively sparse. During the DC stage, a new small clique C1 was formed by construction management units, such as the Planning Bureau and the Environmental Protection Bureau, acting as a separate entity and not directly connecting with other stakeholders. This indicates that during this stage, the government had assigned the expropriation and compensation affairs to construction management units. The frequency of information exchange among small cliques was low compared to the previous stage. In the CI stage, the government did not form an alliance, while stakeholders within C2 had relatively loose connections. However, the C1 and C2 cliques were exceptionally closely related. Meanwhile, C3 had little contact with other small cliques, leading to apparent clique fragmentation. The MO stage consisted of three small cliques. The media, as an independent clique, had less frequent connections with other stakeholders during this stage. Stakeholders within C1 and C2, as well as the connections between the two small cliques, had a high level of closeness.

Small cliques exist in the collaborative network in all stages of urban village renovation projects. During the PP and MO stages, there was a high degree of internal and inter-clique connectivity, while in the two intermediate stages, there was a noticeable phenomenon of information isolation and mutual fragmentation among small cliques. The core stakeholders, with their resource-driving advantage, form small cliques, showing significantly higher frequencies of internal and inter-clique connections compared to small cliques composed of peripheral stakeholders.

Individual role evolution

In the previous section, the “corer-periphery” structure confirmed the differences in the importance of stakeholders at various stages in the urban village renovation project. However, what differences exist in the roles and functions of the same stakeholders in different stages? Therefore, this paper selected stakeholders involved in the entire process as the research subjects: government, construction unit, the public, and the media. The evolutionary changes in the roles and functions of these four stakeholders at different stages were analyzed and presented in Fig. 7 . Due to variations in the number of stakeholders in each stage, the centralities were normalized before the analysis. The degree centrality can be found as Supplementary Table S5 online. The betweenness centrality can be found as Supplementary Table S6 online. The closeness centrality can be found as Supplementary Table S7 online.

The government had the highest degree centrality and betweenness centrality in the PP stage, indicating that it had the most direct connections with other stakeholders. Its interaction ability and control over resources were the strongest, establishing a prominent position and wielding significant power in the collaborative network. In the DC stage, the degree centrality and betweenness centrality of the government significantly decreased, while those of construction units rose to the highest level. This shift indicated that during this stage, the construction unit replaced the government in taking on the primary coordination and organizational responsibilities. The degree centrality of construction units during the CI stage remained much higher than that of the government, but the betweenness centrality was only slightly higher. This suggested that in this stage, there was no significant difference in the resource control capabilities between the construction units and the government. Combining these with the analysis results from the “core-periphery “ structure in Table 4 , it is clear that the construction units play a more crucial role in this stage. In the MO stage, the degree centrality and betweenness centrality of the construction unit and the government decreased. The property management unit and the public assumed central positions in this stage, while the construction unit and the government were mainly responsible for the post-project operational and maintenance supervision and resident satisfaction survey. The degree centrality and betweenness centrality of the public in the entire renovation project process exhibited an “N”-shaped trend, with the lowest points at the DC stages. Associated with analyzing small cliques in this stage, the public mainly consisted of surrounding residents, together with the media forming a small clique, which limited interactions with other stakeholders. In the MO stage, the degree centrality and betweenness centrality of the public reached the highest level, indicating that the public had the most direct connections with other stakeholders during this stage, demonstrating strong interactive capabilities and resource control. The closeness centrality of the media maintained at the lowest level throughout the entire project, which suggested the media in the collaborative network was less influenced by other stakeholders and exhibited a high degree of independence.

The preceding discussions indicated that there were differences in the functions of different stakeholders within the same stage, and the roles of the same stakeholder also vary across different stages. Throughout the entire lifecycle of the project, the government underwent a transformation from a “leader” to a “coordinator.” The public transitioned from a “passive recipient” to an “active participant.” Construction units had strong control over resources, assuming the role of a “resource controller.” Although the media operates as peripheral stakeholders, its high independence allows it to supervise project implementation effectively, with the attributes of an “edge supervisor.”

Results discussion and suggestions

The published literature finds that the success of urban village renovation projects is closely related to stakeholder coordination (Chen et al. 2022 ; Jiang et al. 2020 ). In addition, there are differences in the composition and importance of stakeholders at various stages of urban village renovation projects (Antillon et al. 2018 ; Zhang, 2022 ). Therefore, this study provides an in-depth analysis of stakeholder relationships in urban village renovation projects from an entire lifecycle perspective based on the Social Network Analysis (SNA) method. According to the social network analysis results from the previous section, this section provides a detailed discussion of the weakness in stakeholder collaboration and offers recommendations to enhance stakeholder cooperation in Chinese urban village renovation projects.

Results discussion: the weaknesses of stakeholder collaborative relationships

The connectivity of the stakeholder network at the dc stage needs to be improved.

There was limited interaction among stakeholders in the DC stages, and the overall network density was at a relatively low level, indicating a weak network structure. The reasons for the weak connectivity among stakeholders in this stage are multifaceted. Firstly, stakeholders such as the government, construction units, and demolished villagers have diverse interests, leading to potential conflicts and divergences with a lack of effective communication and coordination mechanisms, resulting in weak connections among them. Secondly, the government and construction units often hold more information and power, while the public, as a disadvantaged group, has relatively limited information. Hence, a predicament of information asymmetry and a lack of trust are created, leading to weakened connectivity.

Especially since the public, as a vulnerable group, has relatively limited information. Finally, this stage primarily involves a continuous negotiation process between construction units and displaced residents to seek a relatively balanced outcome. While financial institutions, legal institutions, and the media are stakeholders in this stage, they mainly serve supportive and supervisory roles, with limited opportunities for interaction with other stakeholders, contributing to weak network connectivity.

Small clique fragmentation is a significant difficulty in the CI stage

The phenomena of small cliques were present in the relationship networks in all stages of the renovation project. During the CI stages, there was a noticeable fragmentation among small cliques. This stage comprised four sub-cliques, with the government not forming an alliance. There was more frequent communication between C1 (construction units and constructor) and C2 (construction management units, consulting services units, suppliers, and financial institutions). In contrast, the communication frequency between C3 (the public and the media) and the other small cliques was significantly lower, with distinct fragmentation. Based on the analysis results, it is clear that the main task at this stage was construction. Thus, there was higher communication frequency among stakeholders related to on-site construction, such as construction units, constructors, and consulting service units. Oppositely, the external parties to on-site construction, such as the public and the media, were less connected to other stakeholders, showing a clear state of fragmentation.

The importance of the public in the PP stage is under-explored

Public participation has consistently been a hot issue in urban village renovation projects under people-oriented and livelihood-oriented construction goals. The network analysis results revealed high public participation in the DC and MO stages and low public participation in the PP and CI stages. In addition, empirical findings from field research and expert interviews revealed that understanding the public’s needs and incorporating them into the early decision-making system in the PP stage could help mitigate disputes among stakeholders in the later stages. There are two main reasons for the low level of public participation in the PP stage. Firstly, there are shortcomings in the public participation process, including insufficient effectiveness of information disclosure mechanism and policy promotion, imperfection of information feedback mechanism, and non-implementation of the feedback loop of public opinions. Secondly, the public’s willingness and capacity to participate are hindered and influenced by their comprehension of policies, available free time and physical health, negotiation and decision-making abilities, and proficiency in professional knowledge.

Recommendations to promote stakeholders’ collaboration

Fully consider villager needs and flexibly transform development mode.

In the past, the renovation of urban villages was usually carried out through land expropriation, transforming rural collective land into state-owned land for renovation. However, some villagers developed strong resistance due to factors such as unwillingness to change lifestyle habits and inadequate compensation amount, resulting in a “nailed-down” dilemma and generating huge time costs and economic pressure. Nowadays, with the continuous exploration of urban village renovation projects, the Chinese government has introduced a series of policies related to residential land use and collective-operated construction land. Without expropriation or forced demolition, these policies can still improve the living environment of urban villages. Therefore, during the PP stage of the renovation, the government should conduct a comprehensive investigation and interviews with villagers to understand their willingness to renovate. This enables the identification of more adaptable development patterns and effectively circumvents the effects of structural mismatches. Compared to rigid governance methods, this consultative approach can fundamentally solve the resistance to demolition and relocation and effectively shorten the time cycle of urban village renovation projects.

Facilitate two-way communication channels to ensure public participation

The public is the stakeholder and the ultimate beneficiary of the urban village renovation project. However, at the PP stage, public participation is primarily organized by village collectives, involving consultation and decision-making, where the public can only passively receive information about the renovation without influencing decisions in return. To address the low level of public participation, especially at the PP stage, the promotion by the government and the media should be increased first, clearly outlining the expected benefits of participation. This helps the public recognize the convenience in their lives after the renovation project, thereby enhancing their willingness to participate. Secondly, organizing the dissemination of professional knowledge and providing training can improve the public’s understanding of policies and the entire process of innovation projects, fostering their participation capabilities. Finally, improving public participation procedures can ensure effective public participation. The government should establish diverse channels for public participation, refine the procedures, and effectively obtain feedback from public opinions. Village collectives should act as liaisons between the government and the villagers, facilitating the connection between policy distribution and opinion feedback. By cultivating public awareness and capabilities in participation and facilitating two-way communication channels, the public can genuinely influence the entire decision-making process of the renovation project.

Utilize the resource-driven advantages of core stakeholders

In the urban village renovation project, the government should fully mobilize the enthusiasm of all stakeholders. As a strategy planner, the government has advantages in the governance of stakeholder relations with a high position and far-sighted perspective. In the new era of urban village renovation projects, the government should grasp the strategic direction of the project renovation and coordinate the interests of multiple stakeholders. As a market entity, the construction unit has a keen vision and flexible characteristics. In the process of implementing renovation, the effective allocation of resources and collaboration among stakeholders is inseparable from the consultation and exchange of construction units. In the new era of urban village renovation projects, the emphasis extends beyond the decisive role of the construction unit in allocating resources to a heightened focus on sustainable development. The future approach should break away from the traditional real estate development model of “one-time transactions” and instead integrate urban village renovation with guaranteed rental housing. This approach not only enhances residents’ living environment but also ensures the long-term operational sustainability of construction units.

Establish an online sharing platform to break the clique fragmentation dilemma

Strengthening informatization and network construction is essential to enhance stakeholders’ governance efficiency in the new situation. Establishing an interactive sharing platform could effectively integrate information resources among various stakeholders, such as the government, construction units, constructors, and the public. This breaks down communication barriers and addresses the fragmentation of governance systems, ensuring the realization of collaborative governance among multiple stakeholders in urban village renovation projects. Particularly during the CI stage, on-site construction is mainly carried out by core stakeholders with solid professionalism, such as construction units, constructors, and consulting services, with limited involvement from marginal stakeholders like villagers and the media. Establishing online sharing platforms could increase communication frequency among stakeholders and effectively alleviate the clique fragmentation phenomenon during this stage.

To leverage their respective resource advantages and achieve effective collaboration, stakeholders aim to implement collaborative governance in urban village renovation projects. This goal is pursued due to the complexity of stakeholder relationships in such projects and the variations in the composition and significance of stakeholders at different stages of project construction. Therefore, this study utilized a mixed research method, combining a single case study and social network analysis, to investigate the dynamics in stakeholder relationship networks during the construction of an urban village renovation project in Tianjin, China. By analyzing the evolution of stakeholder relationships, the study uncovered the challenges associated with achieving stakeholder collaboration. The findings revealed that the main constraints to achieving collaboration among stakeholders in the urban village renovation project were the limited public participation in the PP stage, the weak connections in the DC stage, and the apparent clique fragmentation in stakeholder networks during the CI stage.

How do we achieve the goal of collaborative governance among stakeholders? Firstly, it is essential to thoroughly understand the residents’ needs and align the development mode with their actual requirements. Secondly, increasing public participation in the PP stage is crucial. This could effectively minimize the negative impact of public dissatisfaction in the later stages and enhance overall public satisfaction with the project. Thirdly, the core stakeholders should leverage their resource-driven advantage and incorporate more stakeholders into the collaboration network. Finally, establishing a network-sharing platform proves to be an effective measure to overcome small clique fragmentation.

Although this study specifically focused on the urban village renovation in Tianjin, China, its theoretical, methodological, and practical implications extend beyond this context and could be applicable to other cities and countries. Firstly, from a theoretical perspective, the constructed theoretical knowledge system that combines stakeholder analysis with synergistic governance goals provides a clearer goal orientation for stakeholder research in urban villages. Secondly, in terms of methodology, the adoption of a mixed research method, combining a single case study with social network analysis, acknowledges the complementary nature of qualitative data and quantitative networks. This approach aids in gaining a more in-depth understanding of stakeholder interactions and role characteristics. The mixed qualitative and quantitative research methodological framework proves advantageous in stakeholder relations research and can be continued in future studies. Finally, in terms of practical significance, this study conducts a comprehensive examination of stakeholder relations throughout the entire lifecycle, aligning more closely with the current practices in implementing urban village renovation projects. The results of the analysis could help stakeholders, including the government, developers, the public, and the media, better understand their roles and critical strengths in the various stages of urban village redevelopment, thus enhancing decision-making efficiency and effectiveness.

At present, the renovation method of urban villages in the Beichen District of Tianjin is a typical model in China’s urban village renovation projects, and the research findings hold significant reference value. In addition, the stakeholder analysis model constructed in this study, from an entire lifecycle perspective, enables a more profound exploration of stakeholder interrelationships and is equally applicable in other project stakeholder studies. Future research could be further developed in the following areas: (1) The measurement of stakeholder relations could be improved. This study identified measures of “5”, “3”, “1,” and “0” mainly from the perspective of power and interests, where the actual stakeholder relationships are more complex. Future research could adopt a more comprehensive approach by assigning values to interaction intensity, communication frequency, and cooperation frequency. (2) A comparative study of stakeholder relations under different development modes could be conducted. This study found that differences in the development models, including government-led, government-enterprise cooperative, and village collective self-initiated, would lead to significant differences in stakeholder relationships. Future research could explore the variability of stakeholder relationships under different development models.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary files.

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This research was supported by the National Natural Science Fund of China (Grant No. 72072126).

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Zheng, X., Sun, C. & Liu, J. Exploring stakeholder engagement in urban village renovation projects through a mixed-method approach to social network analysis: a case study of Tianjin. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 27 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02536-7

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Dharavi, located in Mumbai in India, is one of Asia’s largest slums and shot to global fame with its depiction in the Oscar winning film Slumdog Millionaire. In 2004, Dharavi Redevelopment Project was launched as a public-private alliance between the Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority (MHADA) and global corporations. Its principal architect Mukesh Mehta listed the key goals of the Dharavi Redevelopment Project as: “sustainable development; rehabilitation of all the slum families and businesses; reestablishment of non-polluting industries; and the integration of slum dwellers with main stream residents.” The Dharavi Redevelopment Project has been marketed as a form of sustainable urbanism through the HIKES (health, income, knowledge, environment, and socio-cultural development) program. The HIKES program, which effectively realizes the “world-class city” urban vision of neoliberal urbanists is postured as sustainable urbanism, making it attractive to neoliberal urbanists and middle class environmentalists alike. In theory, the Dharavi Redevelopment Project would provide Dharavi residents with cross-subsidized materially upgraded permanent high-rise modern housing, piped water, sanitized waste disposal, drainage, and green parks. Yet Dharavi residents have rejected it as a hubristic unsustainable modernizing project, designed to evict and disenfranchise them. This paper examines why the Dharavi Redevelopment Project is a contested model of architecture and urbanism to argue that the project is emblematic of class warfare over architectural typologies, urban space, urbanism, and the role of the state in making world-class cities. The Dharavi Redevelopment Project reduces slum rehabilitation to a simplistic problem of numbers in terms of Floor Space Index (FSI). At the core of the battle over Dharavi Redevelopment Project is a cultural conflict over urban citizenship and what the ideal city should be.

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Reengineering an urban slum: a case study of Dharavi, India

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An interdisciplinary debate on project perspectives

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Renovation programs in old and inefficient neighborhoods of cities with case studies

• Abdol Aziz Shahraki   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7211-8230 1  

City, Territory and Architecture volume  9 , Article number:  28 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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This article concerns urban renovation’s background, necessity, goals, methods, and outcomes. The addressed question is how shall renew and rehabilitate old and non-functional urban neighborhoods.

The aim is to build a model for cities’ renovation respecting general standards of town-building, local characteristics, requirements of inhabitants, and strategic development plans.

The applied research methods are theoretical and experimental, which analyze the situation of worn-out neighborhoods of the case study cities in housing, physical, socioeconomic, and environmental perspectives.

A problem-oriented, systematic, and step-by-step model evaluates the average magnitudes of damages caused by the nonfunctioning neighborhoods in 31 metropolitans of Iran. Certain indicators will introduce neighborhoods to renew them through a mother renovation program, which includes several projects. Simulating the program in the cities lead them to the best possible results in the renovation.

The renovation program is applicable in every other city, which faces inefficiently and nonfunctioning because of oldness.

Introduction

The history of urban renewal goes back to the results of the Industrial Revolution, in which cities such as Manchester in the United Kingdom with densely populated areas and Stockholm in Sweden had been renovated with effective programs (Metzger & Olsson, 2013 ). Singapore in the Far East also joined the renovation movement and achieved remarkable socio-economic results from its urban renovation plans (Zoohri, 1987 ).

Urban renovation has always been a necessity for communities because homes, buildings, and various infrastructures are old, destroyed, and nonfunctioning (Chahardowli & Sajadzadeh, 2022 ). Neighborhoods become inefficient due to various reasons, including poor management, lack of budget allocation for maintenance, the end of the shelf life of buildings, and disregarding standards of urban quality of life (Ragheb & El-Ashmawy, 2021 ). Recent economic savings have led to more neglect in urban renewal. The number of old buildings and dilapidated neighborhoods is increasing, creating many problems for citizens, particularly the disabled, elderly and children. Simultaneously, not enough attention is paid to discussing the urban renovation. Therefore, there is a great need for research on urban renovation programs. The need of cities for renovation stems from their nature, which must be taken care of so that they can reciprocally serve the citizens. However, there is no adequate research work on this subject. This study addresses this need by providing a generic urban renovation program. In the renovation of cities, issues like required healthcare facilities, modern urban transportation facilities, digital official bureaucratic services, electronic trade, modern infrastructure, and communication for distance education shall be studied.

This research builds a comprehensive renovation program with details for Iranian cities based on the physical, environmental, climatic, and socio-economic characteristics of every city and the needs of its inhabitants.

The questions addressed in this paper are how shall renew the old urban neighborhoods? What elements have a renovation program in the city?

Consequently, the following questions arise What is this situation in the city? Where will the city want to go? How shall the city achieve this goal?

This paper also must answer general questions concerning the renovation programs in every city as follows:

What are the strategic factors in an urban renovation program? What are the assets, privileges, and unique features of the city? What are the most significant projects to be included in the urban renovation program? Who are the forces behind an urban renovation program?

The methods applied in this research are both theoretical and experimental in a problem-oriented procedure. Theoretical studies concerning the theories and experiences of scholars have been conducted. A case study strategy concerning 31 metropolises in Iran has been conducted. Structured interviews with the help of a questionnaire ensure public participation in the process of strategic urban renovation planning. Further, the increasing negative impacts of old neighborhoods in the metropolitans as the average magnitude of the hazards have been assessed. Finally, with the help of the research methods, a step-by-step urban renovation program has been built.

The outcome of this research is a practical program to assist resolving urban renovation problems.

Theoretical studies

Purpose of theoretical studies.

This part reviews the literature concerning urban renovation to lead the old and inefficient neighborhoods toward sustainable and functioning outlooks.

The purpose is also to learn from global experience for the renovation of urban neighborhoods through reforms in their skeletons, infrastructures, and socio-economic features.

These ideas and experiences will be used in the case studies in this paper. The theoretical studies follow a problem-oriented method within certain time intervals. The problem-oriented model has been used earlier to assess the rate of sustainability in regional and urban developments (Shahraki, 2017 ). Other scholars have also used the problem-oriented method to provide solutions to complex and multi-level problems in cities (Smith et al. 2010 ).

Background of urban renovation

Modern attempts at urban renovation began in the late nineteenth century in developed countries and experienced a wider scope in the late 1940s (Chigbu, 2012 ). Urban renewal programs began in the industrial cities of the United Kingdom and Europe to meet the growing needs of citizens after the First and Second World Wars (Klemek, 2011 ). The cities of England, after the Industrial Revolution, and Germany, after the devastation of the war, used renovation programs. Scandinavia used urban renovation and socio-economic revitalization programs to improve their quality of life of the people (Metzger & Olsson, 2013 ). Urban renovation has been a program of land redevelopment in metropolitans everywhere in the world, from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe to the underdevelopment countries and post-war regions (Ragazzo, 2021 and Fuhg, 2021 ). The rapid increase in the population of the underdeveloped cities has resulted in inefficient and deprived urban neighborhoods, which have shortages of necessary urban spaces, services, and infrastructure (Boadi et al. 2005 ). The United Nations Center for Human Settlements (UNCHS) has been engaged in urban renewal programs in several cities, particularly in the underdevelopment countries since 1975 (Albuquerque & Guedes, 2021 ). According to this center, in 2001, 924 million people (approximately 30%) of the world's urban population lived in none standard settlements. These settlements are polluted, infectious, and unsafe that causing health and social problems and require renovation programs.

Today, international, national, regional, urban, public, and private organizations in cities in the United States, Latin America, Canada, Australia, Europe, Africa, and Asia are responsible for urban renewal programs.

Urban renovation is a global necessity

Many cities face numerous problems in terms of spatial aging, exhaustion, and inefficiency (Salthouse, 2000 ). Following the rapid physical expansion of old towns, many urban districts, particularly the central cores of the cities, plus marginal habitats have remained without infrastructure and services to common concerns, about climate change, increase in population, degradation of natural environments, and traffic emissions (Baer and Singer, 2016 ). The problems of tight spaces in homes, schools, buildings, infrastructure, and the challenges of public health protection in the old urban neighborhoods are visible. The aging and inefficiency of the mentioned urban spaces are among the challenges that urban renovation programs shall handle (Preiser, et al. 2017 ). The term of urban renovation has been used widely in the literature with a common concept that the worn-out urban neighborhoods are the outcome of long time use of buildings, which have been built by previous generations and the present inhabitants cannot afford to renew them (Liu et al. 2021 ). Additionally, scholars believe that cities need renovation plans since their land-uce policies, less investment in rebuilding projects, and incompetent management increase damage there (Shi et al. 2019 ).

General objectives of an urban renovation program

Cities with old and inefficient neighborhoods should set their renovation plans according to the latest climate, demographic, economic, technological, and cultural changes. An urban renovation program revised land-use policies to gather empty land from every worn-out neighborhood, building, street, and home (Nae et al. 2019 ).

New economic and livelihood activities also require sufficient urban land for new businesses. Regarding the need for land it will be rational to destroy old private and public buildings to use their lands for necessary businesses and production (Altshuler & Gomez-Ibanez, 2000 ). Additionally, an urban renovation program shall allocate adequate urban lands to supply homes for low-income groups in the cities. The renovation programs in every city should pay particular attention to the saving of natural resources and water supplied rather from local sources and not from far distant regions (Mayo et al. 1986 ).

The old, non-functioning, and deprived urban districts do not have adequate infrastructure such as adequate room for physical distances in the streets, transportation terminals and buildings. Therefore, the provision of those spaces should be an important part of the renovation program for the improvement of urban quality of life. An urban renovation program should ensure public participation, especially amomg the deprived and marginalized residents. They shall be included in the urban economy and in the process of making decisions about the conduction of the planned changes. The main policy of the urban renovation programs shall be development for all residents, regardless of color, race, gender, and rank (Klimova, 2010 ). Fighting administrative and official structural corruption in the municipalities and authorities shall be a priority too. Promoting and encouraging transparency with free and independent press is indispensable as well. Transparency in the planning, and conduction of the projects is necessary. Generally, the aim must be sustainable development in the cities. Sustainable development of the cities without the renovation of urban exhaustion and inefficiency is impossible, as Li and colleagues recognized too (Li et al. 2021 ).

Outcomes of urban renovation programs

Urban renovation programs have rehabilitated lands and planned new constructions in many cities. The new constructions used the market requirements, urban regulations, and building standards considering strategic macroprograms. The basic drivers for renovation projects have been legal and financial authorities. The authorities acquired urban lands and real estate and financed new construction according to the needs of the city. The permission to finance the new construction from the donations and to borrow and sell bonds, or increasing taxes to finance the operations are basic tools for urban renovation programs. Therefore, the urban renovation is a process in which first it identifies and selects properties located in urban blocks, neighborhoods, and areas based on certain indicators. Then, the municipalities' renovation agencies take over the lands, which need demolishing, renovation, and new construction.

The next step in this process is the selection of competent engineering companies to conduct necessary construction projects. World experience shows that property owners or tenants receive compensation directly from the national or local governments. The urban renovation programs have improved the urban and regional economy and created numerous job opportunities and an efficient urban management mechanism (Peiser & Anne 2003 ). The urban renovation programs have been used as a method of social reform in England to renew the industrial areas with a polluted environment. The urban gentrification program in Britain was practically successful, as it provided standard housing and a clean environment (Fuhg, 2021 and Smith, 2012 ).

Looking at the experiences of urban renovation in Singapore, shows that the urban renovation in that country was a priority and a national agreement (Kong & Yeoh, 1994 ). The renovation programs also changed the ugly and unsustainable Stockholm into the most beautiful and green capital in Europe (Metzger & Olsson, 2013 ). This miracle in Stockholm has been realized because of the decisive decision to renovate the cities, agreement, and collaboration between political parties, social groups, and the public. Thus, the renovation programs in advanced countries resulted in the aesthetics of the cities. The programs also played an important role in the demographic development of the cities.

An overview of the history of renovation programs in the cities of Iran showing failures. The renovation of the cities in Iran has only been in the discussion phase and it has not taken place in the field of operations (Mirzakhani et al. 2021 ).

Having accurate indicators to determine the rate of urban tissue erosion is important in deciding the type of renovation project. For this reason, it is obligatory to identify indicators that decide and introduce worn-out urban neighborhoods. The indicators will determine worn-out urban neighborhoods in detail, squares, streets, and other features of the cities.

Scholars have introduced indicators to determine the inefficient and non-functioning spaces. The introduction of indicators has benn discussions by scholars, scientists, and experts, i.e. (Peponi, et al. 2022 ) evaluated a multidimensional analysis in the perspective of urban ecosystem services with several indicators helpful for assessing the functioning of urban neighborhoods.

A sustainable urban renewal model for the high-density city of Hong Kong supplied indicators to contribute to sustainable urban regeneration and to evaluate local urban renewal projects (Lee, 2009 ).

Scholars have introduced multidimensional indicators to make a decision whether an urban neighborhood is exhausted and needs renovation projects. The indicators are differsnt, but the particular features of every city shall be respected too. The indicators which will be used for the assessment shall be in the context of the problem-oriented methodology. Table 1 shows indicators supplied by the literature review and workshop experiences.

Methodologies

Applied research methods.

Both theoretical and field studies are used in this research to supply a framework for the case studies. The case studies concern 31 metropolises, which are capitals of provinces in Iran with physical and socio-economic problems (Karimi, et al. 2020 ; Shahraki, 2020 ). Using a questionnaire concerning urban land-use policies, infrastructure, distribution of energies, water and wastewater, environment, building standards, and socio-economic situation of inhabitants realized public participation in the process of urban renovation planning.

The sample population was 400 respondents who have were idntified by random technique and included all social groups from 18 to 80 years old and engineers at road and town building offices. Out of 400 questionnaires, 314 people, or 78.5%, answered. A model has been developed in the context of the problem-oriented method and in a certain time interval to simulate the negative effects of worn-out neighborhoods inn 31 cities.

This research sets up a prospect for worn-out urban neighborhoods and introduces projects to renew the built environments.

A comprehensive urban renovation program includes groups of projects in terms of legislation and regulation in urban land-use policies, the physical design of urban skeleton, and socio-economic rehabilitation. The program also has projects for protecting natural resources and the environment, designing and building of the street network, and improvement of buildings and infrastructure.

Case studies

The case studies are about 31 metropolises in Iran with 83 million population (Iranian census organization). Figure  1 exhibits places of the cities in Iran.

The map shows the positions of the cities under study in Iran Source: https://www.mapsofworld.com/iran/iran-political-map.html . The following table shows the names of cities with their area and population

Iranian cities are mainly rooted in agricultural production and feudal social relationships. Following socio-economic reforms of the Pahlavi dynasty, manifestations of modernism, including the development of some buildings, emerged with the construction of some modern streets (Gharipour, 2019 and Davidson, 2019 ). However, the rest of the city remained undeveloped, and the culture of feudal relationships continued to dominate. Therefore, the inequality in civil rights such as unfair land-use policies and housing has continued similar to the powerful feudalism era. Urban development for people with no dependency on the authorities and poor has also been ignored due to lawlessness, corruption, and lack of competent urban management. Today, the cities of Iran have numerous problems such as no functioning and ugly perspectives. Iranian metropolitans have experienced a rapid increase in worn-out areas. In 2014, the old, marginal, and deprived urban districts were declared a national crisis and encompass one-third of Iran's urban population (Ministry of Roads and Urban Development, 2014 ). Workshops, field studies, and observations conducted by the author show that approximately 35% of people live in exhausted, nonfunctional, and deprived urban neighborhoods, please refer to Table 2 .

A renovation program for cities

The process of urban renovation planning.

The worn-out and neighborhoods are the two main groups:

Unauthorized and informal settlement.

Worn-out neighborhoods located within the legal boundaries of the metropolises. Nevertheless, both groups have the following characteristics:

Some urban neighborhoods are mainly places for illegal immigrants from rural areas of Iran and neighboring countries

Some are downtown neighborhoods mainly with native people, who have not afforded to renovate their homes and buildings during the past decades.

Residential blocks belong to government employees supported by banks, but they lose approximately one-third of their lives to building a home. In these areas, urban land has only for homes and buildings. The neighborhoods suffer from nonstandard buildings.

The next step introduces indicators to decide which neighborhoods are worn-out or nonfunctioning. However, the rates vary in intensity of worn-out and types of remedies in different urban neighborhoods that the Table 3 shows.

The process of urban renovation planning in the cities of Iran

The provisioning process for a renovation program is for every city step by step is as follows.

Step 1-Founding a responsible group for the mother renovation program.

Step 2-Definition of the strategic goals of the city.

Step 3-Definition and planning, design, and preparing urban renovation projects in the mother program. Some types of projects are.

Demolition projects

Urban land allocation projects

Street improvement projects

New street building projects

Renewing or new building of homes

Renewing or new building of schools

Renewing or new building of urban infrastructure

Economic empowerment projects for inhabitants

Social empowerment projects for poor people

Cultural projects to protect and renew the social heritages

Political projects to increase social solidarity and sustainable development of the city

Step 4-Provision of an album of executive maps for every project of the mother renovation program.

Step 5-Conduction of urban renovation projects.

Step 6-Auditing and evaluating the outcomes of a renovation program.

Note that every project of the mother program will have micro (user), medium (block), or macro (district and city) scales depending on the necessity.

Findings and discussions

Urban renovation experiences in the world showed that physical, spatial, and socio-economic renovations of cities were parallel to democratic socio-economic reforms. It has been understood that worn-out neighborhoods are hazardous and obstacles to social and economic development. The cities that meet construction standards and requirements of sustainable development have got major socio-economic, and physical crises (James, 2014 ) found it necessary to decline the hazardous effects of nonfunctioning urban neighborhoods in their cities and outcomes were tremendously positive.

The deterioration and inefficiency of urban neighborhoods in Iran have also caused damage, which has led to social riots. Studies by Iranian experts show that delays in urban renewal in suburban and old neighborhoods cause increasing damage to cities. The Ministry of Road and Urban Development evaluated the average magnitude of agglomerated damage caused by delaying renovation in the 31 metropolises from 1989–2017. The Table 4 shows the data obtained from the ministry have been retrieved according to the author's local cognition and experiences.

Table 4 shows that the entire metropolises of Iran experienced multifaceted crises due to the worn-out areas and inefficiency and no functioning of the urban neighborhoods, with magnitudes evaluated as \(M1,M2,M3,...,M\) in 15-time points of \(T1,T2,T3,...,T\) . The average magnitude of the losses of worn-out urban neighborhoods to cities is an indicator whose range is assumed to be from 1 to 100 and is determined based on the opinions of urban planning experts. In Table 3 , each \(T\) denotes a 2-year time and the unit of measurement is the same for all cities at all times. The following curve has been drawn based on the data in Table 3 and shows the increasing magnitude of the damages.

In Fig.  2 , the vertical axis on the left side shows the magnitudes of the harms, and the horizontal axis represents the interval time between 1989 and 2017 from the left to the right. The red-colored curve shows that the average magnitudes of harms caused by the worn-out neighborhoods have increased during the time, though there are some fluctuations in the curve. The increase proves that the renovation program and its projects should be started as soon as possible. So far, the efforts to renew the old urban neighborhoods have not been essential, effective, and institutional, and the magnitude of harm has risen from 2.1 to 65 in that period.

Average magnitude of damage caused by worn-out neighborhoods in the cities

Conclusions

This article discussed the hazardous impacts of worn-out and nonfunctioning urban neighborhoods in the development of cities. For this reason, the cities required physical and socio-economic renovation programs to improve their skeletal, spatial, and socio-economic characteristics.

The theoretical and experimental methods, which were problem-oriented conducted case studies in 31 metropolises in Iran to revise the increasing areas of worn-out urban neighborhoods. Indicators belonging to Geology, interior and exterior standards of the buildings, infrastructure, land-use policies, socio-economic, environmental, and aesthetics of cities were selected to evaluate the type of nonfunctioning and remedy to improve them.

The three-A, B, and C types of worn-out urban neighborhoods required different renewal projects. The step-by-step renovation program finally defined the projects to be implemented. The urban renovation program (mother program) introduced several projects to improve the physical and socio-economic features of the cities.

The achievement of this article, which was a step-by-step urban renewal program, can also be simulated in other cities with a similar situation.

The prospect of this research is to define and plan future development projects in urban renovation program details, particularly in group A cities, which are in intense crisis and urgently need renovation programs.

Availability of data and materials

All data used in this research are from free resources.

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The author would like to thank the respondents who answered the specialized questions related to this research in Iranian cities.

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Shahraki, A.A. Renovation programs in old and inefficient neighborhoods of cities with case studies. City Territ Archit 9 , 28 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00174-1

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Received : 03 December 2021

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00174-1

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• Urban renovation
• Worn-out urban neighborhoods
• Functioning planning
• Problem-oriented method