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Vegetable Science

‘Vegetable Science’ is an official publication of Indian Society of Vegetable Science (ISVS), a society dedicated to promoting the research & development of vegetables. The journal plays a crucial role in disseminating knowledge, sharing innovative ideas and fostering collaboration among scientists, academia and experts working in the realm of vegetable crops. The journal ‘Vegetable Science’ covers all aspects of vegetable research & development.

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Phenophasic variation in cotyledon chlorophyll content and chlorophyll fluorescence: an insight into germinating cowpea, mining of resistance source for root-knot nematode (meloidogyne incognita) in bitter gourd, unraveling heterosis and combining ability for enhancing yield and its component traits in cabbage, exploring bell pepper (capsicum annuum l. var. grossum) germplasm resilient to leaf curl disease, etiology and immuno-molecular detection of snake gourd (trichosanthes anguina l.) mosaic disease in kerala, india, trait association and variability study for biochemical and yield related traits in onion (allium cepa l.), effect of crop intensification in garden pea grown under natural farming system, residue dissipation kinetics and consumer risk assessment of tebuconazole in tomato fruits and the soil, variability and genetic divergence studies in red cabbage (brassica oleracea var. capitata f. rubra) under north-western himalayas, dus based agro-morphological characterization and genetic variability in okra [abelmoschus esculentus (l.) moench], genetic diversity for horticultural traits in vegetable mustard (brassica juncea), heterosis for morphological and biochemical traits in cauliflower (brassica oleracea l. var. botrytis) under mid hill zone of north western himalayas, appraisal of cherry tomato genotypes for diversity and principal component analysis, assessment of genetic purity of f1 hybrids and their parents through sds-pase in brinjal (solanum melongena l.), estimates of heterosis for yield and its attributing traits in pumpkin (cucurbita moschata duch. ex poir.), characterization of native root-knot nematode antagonistic rhizobacteria for plant growth promotion traits and their evaluation in tomato, growth, yield and economics of rainy season cauliflower as influenced by the transplanting dates and varieties, variability in horticultural and biochemical traits of dolichos bean (lablab purpureus l.) landraces from bundelkhand region of uttar pradesh, genetic variability and association studies for yield and its attributes in cultivated potato (solanum tuberosum l.), analysis of chlorophyll, carotenoids and yield in mutants of vegetable soybean (glycine max l.), assessment of genetic variability among vegetable amaranth (amaranthus tricolor l.) genotypes in indo-gangetic plains, evaluation of partial diallel derived okra hybrids in bundelkhand region, bio-inoculants could enhance growth, yield, quality and reduce disease incidence in cabbage, short communication, effect of plant growth regulators on growth and yield of tomato, protection against fusarium wilt disease in bell pepper through abiotic resistance inducers, make a submission.

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• Review Article
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• Published: 01 June 2019

Advances in research on the carrot, an important root vegetable in the Apiaceae family

• Feng Que 1 ,
• Xi-Lin Hou 1 ,
• Guang-Long Wang 1 , 2 ,
• Zhi-Sheng Xu 1 ,
• Guo-Fei Tan 1 ,
• Tong Li 1 ,
• Ya-Hui Wang 1 ,
• Ahmed Khadr 1 , 3 &
• Ai-Sheng Xiong 1  

Horticulture Research volume  6 , Article number:  69 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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• Plant breeding
• Plant genetics
• Plant hormones

Carrots ( Daucus carota L.), among the most important root vegetables in the Apiaceae family, are cultivated worldwide. The storage root is widely utilized due to its richness in carotenoids, anthocyanins, dietary fiber, vitamins and other nutrients. Carrot extracts, which serve as sources of antioxidants, have important functions in preventing many diseases. The biosynthesis, metabolism, and medicinal properties of carotenoids in carrots have been widely studied. Research on hormone regulation in the growth and development of carrots has also been widely performed. Recently, with the development of high-throughput sequencing technology, many efficient tools have been adopted in carrot research. A large amount of sequence data has been produced and applied to improve carrot breeding. A genome editing system based on CRISPR/Cas9 was also constructed for carrot research. In this review, we will briefly summarize the origins, genetic breeding, resistance breeding, genome editing, omics research, hormone regulation, and nutritional composition of carrots. Perspectives about future research work on carrots are also briefly provided.

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Introduction.

Carrot ( Daucus carota L.), a biennial herbaceous species, is a member of the Apiaceae family 1 . The cultivated carrots are mainly classified into eastern carrots and western carrots based on pigmentation in the carrot roots 2 . Eastern carrots are thought to originate from Afghanistan, while the origin of western carrots is still uncertain 2 , 3 . The roots of most eastern carrots are purple, and some are yellow. They have slightly dissected leaves and branched roots. The roots of most western carrots are orange, red or white. The leaves of western carrots are highly dissected, and the roots are unbranched 2 , 4 . Currently, orange carrots are becoming more popular and more widely cultivated in the world.

The carrot storage root is a good source of carotenoids, vitamins, and dietary fiber and is also rich in minerals and antioxidants 5 , 6 . With increasing health awareness, carrots are becoming more popular due to their abundant nutrients and benefits for human health. The majority of studies on carrots have focused on cultivation, breeding, tissue culture, nutrient content, and carotenoid synthesis regulation 7 , 8 , 9 . With the development of molecular biology technology, a large amount of information has been produced in research on vegetable crops. As one of the most important members of the Apiaceae family that is widely cultivated around the world, a large number of studies on carrots have also been performed. This review is mainly focused on the domestication, breeding, omics, and chemical composition of carrots. Potential further work in carrot research is also discussed.

Biology and origins

The carrot is a biennial herbaceous species in the Apiaceae family. Carrot roots, which develop from the hypocotyls, have good storage ability. A large amount of carbohydrates are stored in the enlarged taproots for the carrot plant flowering in the second year. The flower of the carrot is a flattened umbrella-shaped umbel (Fig. 1 ). The umbel is a characteristic for distinguishing carrots from related taxa. The colors of the cultivated carrot flowers are usually white, and the carrot leaves are compound leaves 4 , 10 . The fleshy taproot of the carrot develops from the hypocotyls, and the shape of the carrot root is always conical. The color of the root is varied and includes orange, yellow, purple, red, and white 4 . Different pigment contents are responsible for the different colors. With the further development of sequencing, more functional genes related to pigment synthesis will be found. The basic chromosome number of carrots is 9–11. Most cultivated carrots are diploid (2 n  = 2 x  = 18). The average length of the carrot chromosome is 2.34 μm 11 , 12 . In 2011, Iovene integrated the linkage groups with pachytene chromosomes of carrot through fluorescent in situ hybridization. In the report, the lengths of carrot chromosomes were only 2–4 μm, and the nine chromosomes were classified into three groups. Chromosomes 1, 6, and 8 with subterminal centromeres were a group; chromosomes 2 and 4 with terminal centromeres were a group; and chromosomes 3, 5, 7, and 9 with nearly median centromeres were a group. Among the nine chromosomes, chromosome 1 was the longest chromosome and had a small heterochromatic knob 13 .

a Carrot flower. b Carrot root. c , d Field production of carrot

Carrot is a cool climate crop that can be sown in spring in temperate climate zones or in the autumn or winter in subtropical climate zones 14 . Carrots are biennial plants. Vegetative growth is the main process of the first year of the life cycle to store material for reproductive growth. The flesh taproot collected for eating or selling is the root produced in the first year. Carrots will flower or bolt after vernalization when the roots are left in the ground. The time for vernalization must be at least 6 weeks. However, some wild carrots will flower or bolt with little or no vernalization 15 , 16 .

The time frame and geographical location(s) of the earliest cultivated carrots are still uncertain. In Vavilov’s opinion, Asia Minor and the inner Asiatic regions were the origin centers of cultivated carrots. In addition, regions including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were the basic centers of cultivated carrots in Asia 17 . In the Stolarczyk and Janickan report, Afghanistan was thought to be the first center of carrot diversity, and Turkey was the second 10 . With the development of sequencing technology, many molecular markers have been used in research on plant evolution. In Orizzo and his group’s research, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were adopted to analyze the structure and phylogeny of wild and cultivated carrots. A clear separation was found between wild and cultivated carrots. Based on historical documents and experimental results, central Asia was thought to be one origin of cultivated carrot 18 . All of the above research supports the idea that central Asia was an origin of cultivated carrots.

Domestication

Shape, color and flavor, etc. were surmised as selection criteria in the domestication of carrot 4 , 19 . The cultivated carrot can be mainly classified into the anthocyanin, or eastern-type, carrot (e.g., yellow or purple) and the carotene, or western-type, carrot (e.g., yellow, orange, or red) based on the pigmentation in the roots 1 , 20 , 21 . Western carrots are always cylindrical or tapered cylindrical in shape and have less pubescent leaves, higher provitamin A carotenoid content, and higher sugar content than eastern carrots 1 , 22 . Eastern carrots always have thicker, shorter, narrow, conical roots, have pubescent leaves, flower early, and are poor in provitamin A carotenoid content 1 .

The viewpoint that the eastern-type cultivated carrot was domesticated from the wild carrots in the area around Afghanistan is generally agreed upon 2 , 4 . A recent study based on the transcriptome data analysis also supports the hypothesis that the eastern-type cultivated carrot originated in Western Asia 3 . However, there are still some different viewpoints on the origin of western-type cultivated carrots. The western-type cultivated carrot was thought to originate from eastern-type carrots directly, based on the earliest molecular study about carrot domestication 18 . In contrast, Heywood held the idea that western-type cultivated carrots did not originate directly from the eastern-type carrot 2 . He summarized the hypothesis that there was a secondary domestication event in the domestication of western-type cultivated carrot 2 . According to a recent study, western-type orange carrots may also originate from eastern carrots by introgression from wild carrots 3 . Areas around Afghanistan are generally agreed to be the geographic regions of the first cultivation of eastern-type carrots. To determine the geographic regions of the first cultivation of western-type carrots, more genetic sequencing studies are needed.

Carrot breeding

Male sterile breeding.

Carrot is an allogamous plant. The stamens usually mature earlier than pistils in carrots 24 , 25 . The rate of natural hybrids in carrots is very high, but the value of seed production by natural hybrids is uncertain 26 . Male sterile lines have been used in the hybridization breeding of many crops and have made hybridization breeding easier for many plants that are difficult to breed using artificial emasculation 27 . In heterosis breeding, male sterile lines were also widely used. F 1 -hybrid breeding based on cytoplasmic male sterility is the main method of carrot breeding 28 .

In carrot, “brown anther” type and “petaloid” type are the two types of male sterility 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 . The stamens of the “brown anther” type are deformed and brown-colored. Morelock has identified this type in many cultivated and wild carrots 33 . The stamens of the “petaloid” type are transformed into a petal-like shape 34 . This type was found by Thompson 31 and Mccollum 32 in wild carrot. The anthesis of the “brown anther” type is blocked at a late stage of meiosis, and the stamens of the “petaloid” type produce no pollen. In carrot breeding, the “petaloid” type of male sterility is used more often. In 2018, Tan et al. found a wild petaloid male sterile carrot line (Wuye-BY). The male sterile carrot line has no swollen storage root, petal or anther. The advantage of the F 1 hybrid is obvious 35 . In their subsequent experiments, they found that the sequence length of ATP synthase subunit 6 (atp6) was shorter in the male sterile line (Wuye-D) and longer in the fertile line (Wuye-L). The atp6 gene is related to the fertility of plants. They thought that the longer atp6 gene was associated with carrot fertility and that the short atp6 gene was associated with carrot male sterility 36 . In a study by Szklarczyk et al., the sequence of the carrot atp9 gene (atp9-1) in petaloid carrots (Sp-cytoplasm) was shorter than the sequence of atp9-3 in N-cytoplasmic plants. In Sp-cytoplasm carrot, the enhanced expression level of atp9-1 was thought to be responsible for the enhanced ATP9 accumulation 37 . However, male sterility is a genocytoplasmic system, and the mutation in the atp6 gene sequence is not enough to determine plant male sterility. More genetic evidence is needed to determine plant male sterility.

Molecular breeding

Molecular marker breeding.

Molecular markers are a new way to identify germplasm resources based on DNA and mRNA polymorphisms. They can be used in identifying core collections and examining the genetic relationship between parents in breeding research 38 . In genetic diversity analysis, molecular markers are also useful 39 . In basic research and breeding of carrots, molecular markers have been widely used.

In a study by Briard and colleagues, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was found to perform better than morphological or isoenzymatic markers in the varietal identification of carrot 40 . In the characterization of genetic diversity in Daucus varieties, 26 accessions of Daucus were discriminated into five Daucus species and seven D. carota subspecies by RAPD and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) 41 . Lian et al. classified 34 carrot resources into 5 groups and 8 subgroups with 20 random primers by RAPD 42 . In the research of Grzebelus and colleagues, RAPD and AFLP were used to analyze the genetic diversity of carrots. Four inbred lines and eight F1 hybrids were identified through AFLP technology 43 . Six sequence-tagged site (STS) primer combinations were used to identify the carrot petaloid type of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). Five CMS lines were classified into two groups, and eight fertile carrots were classified into six groups 44 .

In breeding carrots for resistance to leaf blight, quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping technology was used to identify QTLs in carrots with new genetic backgrounds. Eleven QTLs were found in the two carrots with new genetic backgrounds of resistance to Alternaria dauci 45 . The QTLs for the synthesis of α-carotenes, β-carotenes, carotene lycopene, and precursors have also been found 46 . Among the molecular markers, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers are an important way to analyze genetic diversity. In the research of Baranski et al., 88 carrot accessions mainly from Europe, North America, and Asia were collected. Thirty SSR loci were fully characterized in these carrot accessions. As a result, the genetic diversity of the Western gene pool was lower than that of the Asian gene pool 47 .

In these studies, many molecular markers have been identified. Among these markers, some are disease resistance-related, some are agricultural trait-related and some reflect genetic diversity. All these markers will play important roles in carrot breeding with the carrot genome sequence database.

Transgenic breeding

Carrot is known as one of the pioneer species in the research of plant tissue culture 48 . The transformation protocols of carrots have also been established over decades. Many transformation methods for carrots have been established. Among the diverse techniques, Agrobacterium -based systems are the most common methods 48 , 49 . Agrobacterium includes A. tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes , and A. tumefaciens is the most common strain in Agrobacterium -based systems. The first carrot transformation based on A. tumefaciens was reported in 1987  50 . According to many optimized transformation protocols of carrot transgenesis systems, explant type, variety, and bacterial strain were found to be the main factors affecting the transformation frequency 48 , 51 . In carrots, roots, cotyledons, hypocotyls, and petioles can all be used as explants. In Pawlicki and his group’s study, the transformation frequency was higher when petioles were used as the explants 51 , 52 . The time of cocultivation was also important. Compared with a cocultivation time of 1 or 7 days, the transformation frequency at a cocultivation time of 2 or 3 days was higher 51 . Following the development of the carrot transformation system, the media was also changed from MS to B5  53 .

In the breeding research on carrots, the genetic engineering method was also adopted. The approach based on overexpressing functional genes was widely used. In the research of Wally et al., functional genes ( OsPOC1 , OsPrx114 , and AtNPR1 ) from other species were overexpressed in carrots to enhance fungal and disease resistance. The transgenic lines overexpressing OsPrx114 displayed high disease resistance compared with the control 54 . In addition to resistance breeding, genetic engineering was also used to accumulate some special components by overexpressing characteristic genes in carrots. In the research of Luchakivskaya et al., HuINFα-2b was overexpressed in carrots to enhance the accumulation of human interferon alpha-2b protein. The transgenic lines expressing HuINFα-2b were thought to be useful in curing various viral diseases 55 .

In recent years, the genome editing method based on the CRISPR/Cas9 system has developed rapidly. This genome editing system has been applied in many spaces, including humans, mice, and plants 56 , 57 , 58 . The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a fast and easy way to edit the genome. In 2018, this genome editing system was first employed in carrot research. Klimek-Chodacka et al. knocked out the F3H gene in carrots and validated the importance of this gene in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin 59 . Xu et al. used the CRISPR/Cas9 system to knock out DcPDS in orange carrots and the DcMYB113-like gene in purple carrots, and the editing efficiencies were 35.35% and 36.4%, respectively 60 . These results suggest that the CRISPR/Cas9 system will be an important and useful method for further research on gene function in carrots.

The transformation method of carrots has matured. Transgenic breeding of carrots has been widely applied in experimental studies, and many important functional genes have been determined by overexpression or genome editing. However, this method should be used cautiously in field production.

Disease and pest resistance breeding

Aster yellows.

Aster yellows is an insect-vectored carrot disease caused by a mycoplasma-like organism. This disease is one of the important diseases that limits the growth and yield of carrot 61 , 62 . Carrots infected by this typical disease will show stunting, yellowing, leaf bronzing, sterility and leaf-like petals 63 . Breeding carrot disease resistance to aster yellows has been implemented for many years. Gabelman and his collaborators selected breeding lines with high resistance to aster yellows through field evaluation and selection. In the breeding process, “Scarlet Nantes”, “Royal Chantenay”, and “Gold King” were found to have higher resistance to aster yellows and “Danvers 126”, “Py-60”, and “Spartan Bonus 80” were more susceptible 63 .

Fungal leaf blight

Fungal leaf blight is a kind of foliar disease in the cultivation of carrots. Fungal leaf blights are mainly caused by A. dauci (Kühn) and Cercospora carotae (Pass.) Solheim around the world 64 . A. dauci lesions always occur on older leaves, and C. carotae lesions always occur on new leaves in carrots 65 , 66 , 67 . Fungal leaf blights are found to cause yield loss by reducing leaf photosynthetic area and breaking carrot petioles. The A. dauci and C. carotae lesions can break carrot seedlings by girdling their petioles 68 . Breeding for leaf blight resistance has been performed for many years. The less-susceptible cultivars are found to have characteristics that delay the spread rate of pathogens. According to Gugino’s report, “Bolero”, “Carson”, “Calgary”, “Ithaca”, and “Fullback” were the cultivars that were less susceptible to A. dauci , and “Bolero”, “Carson”, and “Bergen” were the cultivars that were less susceptible to C . carotae 68 . In the research of Le Clerc et al., QTL mapping technology was adopted for the resistance breeding of leaf blight, and 11 QTLs related to resistance to A. dauci were found 45 .

The carrot fly, Psila rosae F. (Diptera: Psilidae), is the most serious and widespread pest in carrot production 69 . Carrot leaves turn red, orange or rust- colored, and roots present rusty brown scars and tunnels when infected by carrot flies. Carrots infected by carrot flies are inedible and unmarketable 70 . Reports about carrot fly resistance breeding are available from more than 100 years ago 69 . From 1977 to 1978, Ellis and his group performed carrot fly resistance breeding at 12 different locations in England. A total of eight varieties with different resistances were cultivated, including “Clause’s Sytan Original”, “Gelbe Rheinische”, “Vertou LD”, “Clause’s Jaune Obtuse de Doubs”, “Royal Chantenay Elite (Rota) No.275”, “Long Chantenay”, “Danvers Half Long 126”, and “St. Valery”. Among the eight varieties, “Sytan”, cultivated in Nantes, showed the highest resistances to carrot fly 71 . To compare the difference between carrots with different resistances to carrot flies, “Sytan” (most resistant) and “Danvers” (least resistant) were chosen for comparison. The results of the comparative experiment suggested that carrots with high resistance to carrot flies reduce fly damage by delaying the development of larvae 70 . To overcome the effect of environmental factors in variety selection, Ellis and his group developed inbred carrots by using a single seed descent program. A total of nine carrot lines with moderate resistance to carrot fly were selected and seeded 72 . Many other reports about carrot fly resistance breeding have shown that “Sytan” is the variety with the highest resistance. The resistance of “Sytan” to carrot flies has been demonstrated in Canada, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, and the UK 69 , 73 , 74 , 75 . During breeding progress, it was realized that varieties with high carrot fly resistance have lower levels of chlorogenic acid than varieties with low resistance 76 . The concentration of chlorogenic acid may be used as a selection criterion to select a variety with high resistance to carrot flies. However, reports about genetic research into the resistance to carrot flies in carrots are still scarce.

Root-knot nematodes

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) are significant pests that are widely present in plants 77 . In many carrot-producing regions, RKNs are major pests that limit carrot production 78 . In cooler producing regions, Meloidogyne hapla is the most prevalent. In warmer producing areas, Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne incognita are the predominant RKN species 79 . The characteristics of RKNs (present in soil and having a broad host range) and the limited use of nematicides lead to difficulty in controlling the pathogen 80 . To guarantee carrot quality, it is necessary to perform root-knot nematode resistance breeding in carrots. Huang et al. found that “Brasilia” and “Tropical” are resistant to M. javanica 81 , 82 . “Brasilia” is the most promising source of resistance to M. javanica 83 , 84 . Through the use of molecular markers (RPAD and QTL), a locus named Mj-1 that imparts resistance to M. javanica was found in the “Brasilia” cultivar 79 , 85 . The Mj-1 locus is mapped on chromosome 8  79 . In 2014, another locus that imparts resistance to M. javanica was mapped in the cultivar “PI652188” and named Mj-2. Mj-2 is also on chromosome 8 but does not map to the same locus as Mj-1  86 . The discovery of Mj-1 and Mj-2 is meaningful for the root-knot nematode resistance breeding of carrots.

Omics research

Genomics research.

Over the past few decades, sequencing technology has developed rapidly, and more than 100 plant genomes have been sequenced 7 . As the most important vegetable in the Apiaceae family, the carrot genome was also sequenced. In 2014, a genomic database for the carrot was released. This database provides de novo assembled whole-genome sequences and classified transcription factor families of carrots, which is helpful for further research on carrots 87 . Two years later, a high-quality carrot genome (421.5 Mb) was released. In this study, the evolution of the carrot genome was analyzed, and two new whole-genome duplications (WGDs) were identified. The two WGD possibilities occurred ~43 and ~70 million years ago, respectively. Furthermore, DCAR_032551 was hypothesized to play roles in regulating photomorphogenesis and root de-etiolation of carrots. Based on the whole-genome sequencing of carrots, 32,113 genes were predicted. Among the 32,113 genes, 10,530 genes unique to carrots were found 88 . In 2018, the genome sequence data for “Kurodagosun”, a major carrot cultivar in Japan and China, was also released 89 . All of these genome sequence data will significantly promote research on carrot evolution, carotenoid synthesis, and many other important projects in carrots. The genome in Iorizzo’s research (421.5 Mb) is obviously larger than that in Wang’s research (371.6 Mb), which suggests a difference between the sequencing quality in the two studies. The genome data in Iorizzo’s research have higher quality and were analyzed more deeply. The database published by Xu provides a tool for researchers to download gene sequences from Wang’s research. In future research, the two carrot genome datasets should be combined in carrot studies.

The plastid genome of carrots has also been sequenced. In 2006, the plastid genome of carrot was sequenced by Ruhlman et al. The length of the carrot plastid genome is 155,911 bp with 115 unique genes. The results from that research provided a valuable resource for phylogenetic analysis among different angiosperms. In the phylogenetic analysis, the bootstrap values between Daucus and Panax were all 100% in the Maximum parsimony (MP) tree and Maximum likelihood (ML) tree. The results strongly supported the sister relationship between Daucus and Panax 90 .

Transcriptomic research

Transcriptomics is an approach to studying gene expression by measuring all mRNA transcripts in one cell or tissue. The transcriptome sequence dataset is widely used in analyzing gene expression, discovering gene functions, and developing molecular markers 91 , 92 . In carrot research, transcriptomics was also widely adopted. In 2011, to build a molecular resource for revealing new markers and novel genes, the carrot transcriptome was de novo assembled and characterized by Simon’s group. To our knowledge, this transcriptome is the first transcriptome of carrot. Based on transcriptome sequencing, 114 computationally polymorphic SSRs and 20,058 SNPs were identified. In addition, polymorphisms were found predominantly between inbred lines 93 . Xiong’s group established the transcriptomic database (CarrotDB) in 2014. The database was established based on transcriptomic sequences from 14 carrot genotypes 87 .

To further investigate the domestication of carrots, the root transcriptomes of six cultivated carrots and five wild carrots were sequenced. Rong et al. thought that some other wild D. carota subspecies should also be involved in the research of carrot domestication. In cultivated carrots, the expression of the water-channel-protein gene and carotenoid-binding-protein gene was upregulated, and the expression of allergen-protein-like genes was silenced 3 . All these results revealed the potential role of regulators of gene expression in domestication. The western carrots were thought to originate from eastern carrots based on the analysis of transcriptome data from different cultivated and wild carrots.

Phytohormones play important roles in controlling plant root growth and development. As a root vegetable, the effect of hormones on carrot root growth should be investigated. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of hormones on carrot root growth, the transcriptomes of four different developmental stages were sequenced. A total of 4818 unigenes with differential expression between the four stages were identified. Among the 4818 unigenes, 87 genes were found to be involved in the hormone-related pathway 94 . The transcriptome analysis of the key genes involved in the biosynthesis and signaling pathway of phytohormones helped to clarify the roles of hormones during root development.

To investigate the biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot leaves and roots, Ma et al. sequenced the transcriptome of carrot leaves and roots. Based on the transcriptome data, DcPSY1 was thought to be the crucial factor responsible for the higher carotenoid content in carrot leaves. DcLBCY , DcLECY , and DcZEP1 may be responsible for the differences in carotene and xanthophyll levels between carrot leaves and roots 95 .

Depending on the demands of different studies, various transcriptome sequence datasets have been generated. All the datasets are the sequences of genes that are expressed under certain conditions. Transcriptomics promotes research on carrots, and many single important genes were found through this method. On the other hand, research on the relationship among different genes is also interesting. In the future, more research on the interaction among genes based on transcriptome sequence datasets should be performed in carrots.

microRNA research

microRNAs (miRNAs) are a type of noncoding small RNA ~20–24 nucleotides in length 96 . Numerous studies have found that plant miRNAs preferentially target transcription factors and play important roles in regulating plant development 97 . miRNAs are also important participants in responses to abiotic and biotic stresses 98 . As a consensus, miRNA may be an important research object in research on improving the agronomic characteristics of crops.

The first carrot microRNA database was reported in 2013. Seventeen microRNAs were identified from the research. The 17 microRNAs came from 12 different families (dca-mir-156, 160, 167, 172, 774, 778, 854, 1310, 5015, 5030, 5658 and 5664). In analyzing the potential targets of the 17 microRNAs, 24 targets were determined. Among the 24 potential targets, 8 were transcription factors, 6 were stress related, 5 were involved in metabolism and 4 were related to plant growth. Most targets identified in the research have also been reported as microRNA targets in other plants 99 . The microRNA database and the findings are valuable resources for further research in improving the agronomic characteristics of carrots. Unfortunately, research about the microRNA in carrots is still scarce.

Proteomic research

Proteomics is an important technology for studying the growth, development, and stress responses of plants by systematically analyzing the plant proteome. This technology is an important complement to the genome 100 , 101 . Through proteomics, numerous proteins involved in the complex signaling and metabolic network of plants can be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed 100 . In stress-response research in plants, proteomics has proven to be a powerful method and has been used in studying drought, flooding, and nutritional stress responses 102 . Furthermore, proteomics has also been widely used in studying the mechanisms and biological processes of plants, such as fruit ripening, seed germination, and floral development 103 .

In the research of Louarn et al., proteomics was used to analyze changes in the proteome of carrots during cold storage. Carrots cultivated in two different cropping systems were selected as the research object. A total of 15 proteins were found to change in levels in the first month of storage. Between the two different cropping systems, the change in protein level was small. Among the 15 proteins, three were related to the stress response, and three were related to the cytoskeleton. The research indicated that carrot roots have an adaptation to the low temperature within the first month of cold storage 104 . In the research of Wang et al., isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) were used to investigate the impact of elevated carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) on carrot growth and development. Through proteome sequencing, they found a potential molecular mechanism for the altered lignin content in carrot roots induced by elevated CO 2 105 . Proteomic technology provides a powerful way to understand the complex signaling and metabolic network of plant physiological progress and can contribute to further investigation of improving carrot yield and nutrition.

Metabolomic research

Metabolomics is a kind of functional genomics that measures all small molecules (molecular masses ≤ 1500 Da) in a cell or a tissue. The cell or the tissue measured is always in a particular physiological or developmental state 106 . This is a novel approach to performing qualitative and quantitative studies on plant biochemistry at a global level. Metabolomics has been widely adopted to study plant metabolism and food quality 107 .

To investigate the difference between wild and cultivated carrots, Grebenstein et al. constructed the metabolic fingerprinting of wild (“Dutch”) and cultivated (western orange) carrots through nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Differences between the two kinds of carrots only appeared at the quantitative level in the metabolic content. The metabolome of the hybrid of wild and cultivated carrots showed high similarity to that of the maternal carrot. The maternal characteristics and maternal environment may be the factors leading to the similar metabolic content between hybrid and maternal carrots 108 .

In carrot breeding research, metabolomics is also used as a powerful tool. In Leiss and his group’s research, metabolomics was adopted to investigate the resistance of different carrot varieties to Western flower thrips. A cultivated carrot (Ingot) was found to have the highest resistance. The wild and biofortified carrots did not show distinct resistance to the thrips. The contents of the flavanoid luteolin, the phenylpropanoid sinapic acid and the amino acid balanine were more abundant in the resistant carrots. These results were useful in the research of thrip resistance breeding in carrots 109 .

In 2014, the metabolomes of five carrot varieties were measured by NMR to study the effect of genotype on the metabolite components of carrot. In this study, orange carrot varieties were found to be more abundant in the contents of sucrose and β-carotene and to be lacking in the contents of fructose and glucose. The difference between yellow and white carrot varieties was unclear. Genetic differences, growing strategies, and soil types were finally determined to be the factors that affect the composition of different carrot varieties. The results are useful in breeding to improve carrot quality 110 .

Hormone regulation

Phytohormones are important regulators of plant growth and environmental responses. They are involved in almost all physiological processes during the growth and development of plants, such as cell division, growth and differentiation, flowering, seed development, and senescence 111 , 112 . Cytokinins (CK), abscisic acid (ABA), auxins (Aux), ethylene (ET), gibberellins (GA), brassinosteroids (BR) and jasmonates (JA) are the most studied hormones in plants 111 . Among these hormones, Aux, GA, BR and CK are mainly related to plant development; JA and ET are mainly related to plant defense; and ABA is related to the abiotic stress response 111 , 113 . Research on the roles of ABA, GA, BR, CK, Aux, and JA in growth and development of carrots has been performed.

Auxin is a pivotal plant hormone whose cellular level is important for regulating plant growth and development. Fruit formation, leaf abscission, cell division, and cell elongation were all reported to be regulated by auxin 114 , 115 . Among the different kinds of naturally active auxins, IAA is the best studied 116 . In the research of Wu et al., contents of IAA changed obviously at different growth stages and showed distinct discrepancies in different organs. In addition, 18 genes involved in the biosynthesis and signaling pathway of IAA were identified. The way that IAA regulates carrot growth and development may be tissue-specific 117 . However, there are few reports on the effect of exogenous IAA on the field production of carrots.

Gibberellins

Gibberellins are diterpenoid compounds. Through the whole life cycle of plants, GAs play pivotal roles in regulating growth and development, including seed germination, stem elongation, flowering, and fruit development 118 . In cellular growth, promoting the elongation and expansion of cells are the main functions of GAs. Mutants that are defective in GA biosynthesis are always dwarfs 119 .

During the growth and development of carrots, GAs play pivotal roles. In carrots, the content levels in roots are lower than those in petioles and leaf blades 120 . Through foliar application, exogenous GA 3 promotes the growth of the aboveground part and inhibits the growth of roots 119 . At higher temperatures, GA spray application can influence carrot flowering 121 . The impact of GAs on carrot roots promotes the development of secondary xylem and decreases the proportion of secondary phloem 122 . In a study by Wang et al., exogenous GA 3 was shown to enhance the lignification of carrot roots 123 . In addition, GA was involved in the regulation of the differentiation of embryogenic cells in carrot 124 .

Brassinosteroids

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones, an important kind of plant regulator 125 . To date, more than 70 brassinosteroid compounds have been isolated, and brassinolide is the most bioactive compound 126 . During plant growth and development, BRs are involved in various biological processes, such as the formation of stomata and lateral roots, flowering, and fruit maturation. BRs also play important roles in promoting cell division, vascular differentiation and cell elongation, and enhancing the tolerance of the plant 127 , 128 . The spatiotemporal distribution of brassinosteroid activity is a decisive factor that influences the function of BRs 129 . However, the precise spatial and subcellular distribution of BRs in plant organs is still unclear. Regarding the biosynthesis and signal transduction of BRs, the related genes have been determined by using BR-related mutants in Arabidopsis and many other plants 125 . In carrots, genes involved in the biosynthesis and signal transduction pathways have been identified via transcriptomic research. Foliar application of 24-epibrassinolide was proven to promote the elongation of carrot petioles. The aboveground part of the carrot treated with 24-epibrassinolide was taller and heavier than that without treatment 130 .

Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid (ABA) was first recognized as a plant hormone in the early 1960s 131 . ABA plays important roles in regulating almost all physiological processes during plant growth and development, including seed dormancy, seed germination, and fruit maturity 132 . In the presence of environmental stress, ABA plays important roles in inducing stomatal closure to respond to water deficiency 133 . The concentration of ABA within plants determines the roles of ABA in response to changing physiology. In carrots, most reports about ABA are related to somatic embryogenesis. Kiyosue et al. measured the concentration of endogenous ABA in the embryogenic cells, nonembryogenic cells and somatic embryos of carrot. They found that embryogenic cells had the highest level of ABA 134 . In the research of Nishiwaki et al., ABA was found to be the signal substance in the process of carrot somatic embryogenesis induced by stress 135 . In addition, ABA plays an important role in inducing the secondary embryogenesis of carrot somatic embryos 136 . Huang et al. found that genes involved in the biosynthesis and signal pathway of ABA may be affected by carotenogenesis in carrot 137 . The expression level of DcPSY2 (phytoene synthase) can be induced by salt stress and ABA 138 . In Arabidopsis , salt stress was found to induce carotenoid synthesis to contribute to ABA production 139 . These results suggest a critical relationship between carotenoids and ABA.

Cytokinin (CK) is one of the five classic plant hormones and is widely used in agriculture, industry, and research 140 . Regulating cell division and differentiation is the main function of cytokinins. In some plant physiology processes, CK plays critical roles such as promoting shoot growth, inhibiting root growth, and regulating female gametophyte development 141 . CK also plays important roles in enhancing the tolerance of plants to drought, salt stress, and heat 142 . In carrots, 2-isopentenyladenine and 2-isopentenyladenosine are the major cytokinins, and 2-isopentenyladenine was only detected in carrot roots. The diameter of carrot roots is positively related to the level of CK. The concentration of endogenous CK was found to have a circadian rhythm 143 . In Chen et al., cambium tissues were found to be the cytokinin biosynthetic site in carrots. In the field production of carrots, foliar application of CK could promote the growth of carrots on nitrogen- and phosphate-depleted soil. The application of exogenous CK promotes the synthesis of endogenous CK and stimulates the growth of the cortex in carrots 144 . In the study of Wang et al., CK was thought to serve an important function in the second stage of carrot growth (40 days after sowing) 145 .

Jasmonic acid

Jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives originate from lipids of chloroplast membranes 146 . This lipid-derived hormone plays critical roles in plant defense against various abiotic and biotic stresses such as pathogen infection, wounding, ultraviolet radiation, and freezing 147 . In some physiological processes of plant growth, JA also plays roles such as inhibiting root growth, and inducing leaf senescence and flowering 148 . The levels of JA in senescent leaves are significantly higher than those in nonsenescent leaves. The application of exogenous JA was reported to enhance the tolerance of Arabidopsis to low temperature 149 . In carrot, application of MeJA increased the total phenolics in Parano carrot. However, the concentrations of mono- and sesquiterpenes in the leaf were not influenced after MeJA treatment 150 . In Heredia and Cisneros-Zevallos’ research, MeJA application increased the accumulation of phenolics in wounded carrot tissues 151 . In the research of Wang et al., the levels of JA at different growth stages and expression profiles of genes related to JA were measured. They thought that the regulation of JA in carrots was stage-dependent and organ-specific 152 .

Carotenoids

Carotenoids are natural pigments and were found to be present in all photosynthetic organisms. Additionally, carotenoids are known to be good for human health, especially in disease prevention 9 , 153 . According to previous reports, carotenoids function in preventing cancer, cerebrovascular disease (CVD), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cataracts. Their antioxidant properties were thought to be the main factor for the abundant functions of carotenoids 154 . In Krinsky’s research, eating fruit and vegetables that are rich in carotenoids was found to prevent many diseases, such as disorders related to the eye 155 .

In horticultural crops, studies on carotenoids have been widely performed. Tomato, pepper, and carrot were found to be carotenoid-rich vegetables 156 , 157 . Carrot is a kind of root vegetable that has abundant carotenoids accumulating in the root. In the research of Perrin et al., the accumulation of carotenoids was different in the carrots with different root colors. The accumulation in different root tissues was also different. In orange and purple carrot roots, the content of carotenoids in phloem was obviously higher than that in xylem. In the red genotype, the contents of carotenoids in phloem and xylem were similar. The difference in the accumulation in different root tissues was thought to be the result of the different expression patterns of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in specific tissues 158 .

The biosynthesis of carotenoids has been widely studied in plants. In 2002, Santos and Simon identified some putative QTLs that are associated with the accumulation of ξ-carotene, α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene and phytoene in carrot 46 . In 2007, 24 potential carotenoid biosynthesis structural genes were identified by Just et al. Two phytoene synthase ( PSY) genes ( DQ192186 and DQ192187 ) were found in carrots 159 . PSY is an important gene that encodes the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis pathway of carotenoids. The contents of carotenoids in the PSY -overexpressing lines of some vegetables were obviously enhanced 160 , 161 , 162 . In the sequencing of the carrot genome, a central gene ( DCAR_032551 ) involved in regulating carotenoid accumulation was found. Furthermore, authors of the genome paper hypothesized that root de-etiolation may be responsible for carotenoid accumulation in carrot roots 163 . In the research of Ma et al., carotenoid contents in six different carrot cultivars were measured. They thought that carotene hydroxylase genes were involved in α-carotene accumulation and xanthophyll formation 164 . Although homologs of all known genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis have been identified in carrots, there are still some questions that need answers, such as the accumulation of carotenoids in nonphotosynthetic carrot roots.

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are widely distributed natural pigments and flavonoids 165 . Anthocyanins play critical roles in the pigmentation of flowers and fruits 166 . In many colored vegetables and fruits such as red cabbage, eggplant, purple corn, purple potato, grape, peach, plum, and pomegranate, anthocyanins were discovered 167 . In plants, anthocyanins can protect plants from strong light by forming light-absorbing screens and scavenging reactive oxygen species when suffering from light stress 168 . Anthocyanins have also been reported to have many health benefits, including prevention of cardiovascular diseases, anticarcinogenic activity, control of diabetes, and improvement of vision 165 . Providing antioxidants was determined to be the main mechanism for anthocyanins to prevent diseases in humans.

Among the cultivars of carrot, the taproot color variety is abundant. The main colors include orange, purple, yellow, red, and white. In the research of Xu et al., the taproot of purple carrots had more anthocyanin accumulation than that of yellow and orange carrots. Only a few anthocyanins were measured in the taproots of orange carrots, and no anthocyanins were measured in yellow carrot roots 169 . The accumulation of anthocyanins in the carrot roots was affected by many factors, including temperature, nutrients, and light 170 . At the molecular level, many studies on the biosynthesis pathway of anthocyanins have been performed in carrots. Phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), chalcone synthase (CHS), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), and leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase (LDOX) are members of the biosynthesis pathway and have been identified in carrots 171 . According to previous reports, the genes DcUCGalT1 , DcMYB6 , and DcUSAGT1 of carrot were involved in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins 172 , 173 , 174 . In Yildiz and his group’s research, the expression profiles of six anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes ( CHS1 , FLS1 , F3H , LDOX2 , PAL3 , and UFGT ) were measured. CHS1 , DFR2 , F3H , LDOX2 and PAL3 have the highest expression level in solid purple carrots 175 .

Dietary fiber

Dietary fiber is a class of compounds that mainly includes carbohydrates, polysaccharides, and lignin 176 , 177 . The dietary fibers are further classified into soluble and insoluble fibers. Pectins, gums, and hemicelluloses are soluble fibers, and cellulose is the main component of insoluble fiber. In most foods, insoluble fiber is the main dietary fiber, and the content of soluble fibers is small or negligible. The sources of soluble fibers are limited and include citrus fruits, barley, legumes, oats, avocado, and rye. The sources of insoluble fibers are abundant and include most vegetables and cereal grains 178 .

Dietary fiber is well known and popular as a healthy substance within society. The widely known benefit of dietary fiber is its role in improving gastrointestinal function. Insoluble fiber can improve gastrointestinal function by enhancing the peristalsis of the intestine and increasing the bulk of feces 179 . Another way that insoluble fiber protects the colon is through enhancing the proliferation of microbes 178 . In addition, many other functions of dietary fiber have also been reported, such as moderating the postprandial insulin response, reducing cholesterol, regulating appetite, and reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. Sufficient intake of dietary fiber is good for humans to stay healthy 178 , 180 .

In the storage root of carrot, 1.2–6.44% of the mass is dietary fiber, and 80.94% of the dietary fiber is cellulose 8 , 181 . Carrot is a good material for producing juice, but the carrot pomace is wasted. According to previous reports, the dietary fiber of the carrot pomace was abundant and was higher than that of some other agricultural byproducts, including asparagus and onion. The insoluble dietary fiber in the carrot pomace are mainly composed of pectic polysaccharides, hemicelluloses and cellulose and have desirable functions 177 . As a byproduct, carrot pomace is very abundant and could be chosen as a source of dietary fiber. In the research of Chou et al., reducing particle sizes of the carrot insoluble fiber-rich fraction (IFF) can clearly enhance the function of fiber in gastrointestinal function. Furthermore, the ability of micronized IFF to reduce the concentrations of serum triglycerides, serum total cholesterol, and liver lipids was substantially enhanced 182 .

In the research of Wang et al., most lignin in the carrot root was deposited in the xylem. The proportions of lignin in carrot roots decreased with root development 183 . Hypoxia was also found to enhance the lignification of carrot roots 184 . As a promising source of dietary fiber, carrot should be further studied.

Other compounds

Carrot is well known as being a good carotenoid provider. Moreover, carrot roots also contain many other beneficial contents, including vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals 6 , 185 . According to Li et al., sugars, glucose, fructose and starch are the main types of carbohydrates in carrot storage roots 181 . The biosynthesis of the sources is thought to be regulated by DcSus genes in carrot 186 . There are also many minerals in carrot roots, such as potassium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and iron. In the research of Nicolle et al., potassium was found to be the most abundant mineral in carrots 6 . Among these minerals, the content of iron, sodium and magnesium is highly dependent on the carrot variety, whereas the content of potassium and calcium is not 187 . In addition, carrot roots are a good source of vitamin E and ascorbic acid. The concentrations of vitamin E and ascorbic acid in carrots are approximately 191−703 μg and 1.4−5.8 mg per 100 g fresh weight, respectively 6 .

Conclusions and future perspectives

Vegetables are good sources of nutritious substances such as vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. With the increasing requirement for healthy diets, vegetables are becoming increasingly popular. Scientific studies on vegetables have become more necessary. Studies on vegetables have been substantially promoted by the use of many new technologies. As a nutritious root vegetable, carrots are popular and cultivated around the world. Many studies on the germplasm resource, breeding, tissue culture, and molecular research of carrots have been reported. Future research on carrots may focus on the following aspects.

Improving the genome editing system

The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a highly efficient genome editing method developed in recent years. This system was first used in editing the human genome in 2013 and was then widely employed in editing the genomes of other species. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been successfully applied in many plant species, including rice, Arabidopsis thaliana , soybean, maize, and liverwort. This system is an efficient technology for targeting and modifying DNA sequences of interest and is a useful way to study gene functions and crop improvement. However, this efficient tool has not been widely used in carrot research. Improving the CRISPR/Cas9 system in carrots and employing it for carrot improvement should be a focus in the future.

Mining functional genes

The carrot genome has been sequenced, and the genome sequence data have been released. With the rapid development of sequencing technology, many omics technologies, such as transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have been employed in carrot research. A large amount of data generated from these studies provides a potential reference for mining carrot functional genes. Genes controlling root genotype, disease resistance, and cytoplasmic male sterility are candidates to be further identified and determined in future research work. Mining functional genes will guide and promote the breeding work of carrots. The genes that control the swelling progress of carrot roots are still unidentified. With the development of sequencing technology, many opportunities will present themselves for research on the swelling of carrot roots.

Developing the medicinal value of carrots

Carrot storage roots contain abundant biologically active substances. Many of these substances are important for human health. Carrots are used to make juice and dietary fiber in the food industry. In medicinal use, there has been little research on the pharmacological mechanism of many active substances in carrots. Many antioxidants, such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, and polyacetylene, provided by carrots play important roles in preventing disease. With increasing health awareness, the active substances in carrots have good research value and prospects for medicinal use. More future work may focus on developing the medicinal uses of carrots.

Use of hormones in carrot field production

The human population is increasing rapidly around the world, and a substantial increase in agricultural productivity is needed. Through promoting plant growth and enhancing tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, plant hormones provide an opportunity to improve crop production. However, prohibitive costs restrict the widespread and continuous application of hormones in yield production. In carrots, there are almost no reports about the use of hormones in field production. In our opinion, plant hormone application in carrot yield production is worthy of further study. The interaction between human health and hormone application also needs to be studied. In the research on brassinosteroids, the application of brassinosteroids was reported to have no negative impact on human health. In clinical studies, only a very high concentration of brassinosteroids (1000 mg/kg) led to some undesirable side effects in rats 188 , 189 . However, there are few clinical studies on the application of other hormones. More future work may focus on the use of hormones in carrot field production, including application method and efficiency. At the same time, more clinical studies should be performed to investigate the interactions between human health and hormone application.

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The research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31872098), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province https://doi.org/10.1038/s41438-019-0150-6 supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31872098), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20170460) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).

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Feng Que, Xi-Lin Hou, Guang-Long Wang, Zhi-Sheng Xu, Guo-Fei Tan, Tong Li, Ya-Hui Wang, Ahmed Khadr & Ai-Sheng Xiong

School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, 223003, Huaian, China

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Que, F., Hou, XL., Wang, GL. et al. Advances in research on the carrot, an important root vegetable in the Apiaceae family. Hortic Res 6 , 69 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41438-019-0150-6

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Current trends in organic vegetable crop production: practices and techniques.

1. Introduction

2. plant material, 3. organic crop nutrition, 4. soil disinfection, 5. crop management, 5.1. crop rotation, 5.2. intercropping, 5.3. cover crops, 5.4. enhancement of auxiliary fauna, 6. pest and diseases, 6.1. preventive measure, 6.2. curative measures, 7. organic weed management, 8. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Fernández, J.A.; Ayastuy, M.E.; Belladonna, D.P.; Comezaña, M.M.; Contreras, J.; de Maria Mourão, I.; Orden, L.; Rodríguez, R.A. Current Trends in Organic Vegetable Crop Production: Practices and Techniques. Horticulturae 2022 , 8 , 893. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8100893

Fernández JA, Ayastuy ME, Belladonna DP, Comezaña MM, Contreras J, de Maria Mourão I, Orden L, Rodríguez RA. Current Trends in Organic Vegetable Crop Production: Practices and Techniques. Horticulturae . 2022; 8(10):893. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8100893

Fernández, Juan A., Miren Edurne Ayastuy, Damián Pablo Belladonna, María Micaela Comezaña, Josefina Contreras, Isabel de Maria Mourão, Luciano Orden, and Roberto A. Rodríguez. 2022. "Current Trends in Organic Vegetable Crop Production: Practices and Techniques" Horticulturae 8, no. 10: 893. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8100893

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Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a Changing Climate Vol. 2

• © 2023
• Shashank Shekhar Solankey 0 ,
• Meenakshi Kumari 1

Department of Vegetables & Floriculture, Agricultural Research Institute, Patna, India

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Department of Vegetable Science, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, India

• This book presents up to date studies in Olericulture
• Contributions from expert researchers in the field
• Covers climate change, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gasses

Part of the book series: Advances in Olericulture (ADOL)

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About this book

This second volume on the topic will be extremely useful for the researchers and postgraduate students working on vegetable crops with a special focus on climate change.

Today, the entire world is suffering from global warming and its consequent, climate change. This has emerged as the most prominent global environmental issue and there is an urgent need to mitigate its impact on agriculture. Over the past 20 years South Asia has had a robust economic growth, yet it is home to more than one fourth of the world’s hunger and 40% of the world’s malnourished children and women. Persistent climatic variability, which results in frequent drought and flood, is among the major reasons for this phenomenon. Vegetables are in general more succulent (have 90% water) and more sensitive to climatic vagaries and sudden changes in temperature, as well as irregular precipitation at any phase of crop growing, can affect the normal growth, flowering, pollination, fruit setting, fruit development and fruit ripening which eventually decreases the yield. The irregular precipitation also causes the soil salinity and is a major challenge in many vegetable growing areas. To mitigate the harmful impact of climatic change there is an urgent need to develop adequate adaptation strategies for adverse effect of climate change and preference should be given to the development of heat, cold, drought, flood and salinity stress tolerant genotypes along with climate proofing through conventional and non-conventional breeding techniques, as well as exploiting the beneficial effects of CO2 enhancement on crop growth and yield. Available evidence shows that there is high probability of increase in the frequency and intensity of climate related natural hazards due to climate change and hence increase the potential threat due to climate change related natural disasters in the world. At present protected cultivation and grafted seedlings are also popularizing among vegetable growers because of the huge scope as well as, molecular breeding, emerging insect-pests & diseases and postharvest quality of vegetables under this climate change scenario. Moreover, underexploited vegetables, perennial vegetable and tuber crops have a more tolerant ability to climate vagaries compare to major vegetables which are also discussed in this book.

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Challenges and opportunities in vegetable production in changing climate: mitigation and adaptation strategies.

• Olericulture
• Climate change
• Mitigation Strategies
• Protected cultivation
• Postharvest quality

Table of contents (16 chapters)

Front matter, advances in research trends in vegetables under a changing climate: a way forward.

• Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Meenakshi Kumari, Hemant Kumar Singh, Pankaj Kumar Ray, Shirin Akhtar, Bholanath Saha

Emerging Obstacles of Vegetable Production Due to Climate Change and Mitigation Strategies

• Shirin Akhtar, Surabhi Sangam, Tirthartha Chattopadhyay, Abhishek Naik, Shashank Shekhar Solankey

Impact of Climate Change on Nutraceutical Properties of Vegetables

• Meenakshi Kumari, Shashank Shekhar Solankey, D. P. Singh, Rajiv

Nutritional Stress Management in Vegetable Crops Under Changing Climate Scenario

• Bholanath Saha, K. Madhusudhan Reddy, Sushanta Saha, Ayesha Fatima, Shashank Shekhar Solankey

Impact of Climate Change on Leafy and Salad Vegetables Production

• Menka Pathak, Satyaprakash Barik, Sunil Kumar Dash, Durga Prasad Moharana

Impact of Climate Change on Perennial Vegetables Production and Mitigation Strategies

• Rajesh Kumar, Lomash Sharma, Jitendra Kumar Kushwah, Bahadur Singh Bamaniya

Impact of Climate Change on Underexploited Vegetable Crops Production and Mitigation Strategies

• Hemant Kumar Singh, Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Pankaj Kumar Ray, Prakash Singh, Md. Shamim, Raj Narain Singh et al.

Impact of Climate Change on Tuber Crops Production and Mitigation Strategies

• K. Madhusudhan Reddy, Randhir Kumar, S. Bhargav Kiran

Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Seed Production and Mitigation Strategies

• Durga Prasad Moharana, Pragnya Paramita Mishra, Sarvesh Pratap Kashyap, Menka Pathak, D. R. Bhardwaj, Keshav Kant Gautam et al.

Kitchen Gardening for Nutritional Security Under Changing Climate

• Arindam Nag, Anirban Mukherjee, Kumari Shubha, Sangeeta Bhattacharyya, Ramnath K. Ray, Pinaki Roy et al.

Protected Cultivation of High-Value Vegetable Crops Under Changing Climate

• Rajiv, Meenakshi Kumari

Improvement of Vegetables Through Grafting in Changing Climate Scenario

• Pankaj Kumar Ray, Hemant Kumar Singh, Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Raj Narain Singh, Anjani Kumar

Improvement of Vegetables Through Molecular Breeding in Changing Climate Scenario

• Jyoti Prakash Sahoo, Satyaprakash Barik, Menka Pathak, Barsa Tripathy, Madhuri Pradhan

Emerging Insect-Pests of Vegetables Due to Changing Climate

• M. Prashant, M. A. Waseem, Kalmesh Managanvi, Erayya, Vijay Laxmi Rai

Emerging Diseases of Vegetables Due to Changing Climate

• Erayya, Subhashish Sarkhel, Kalmesh Managanvi, Santosh Kumar, Ayon Alipatra

Impact of Climate Change on Postharvest Quality of Vegetables

• K. Prasad, S. K. Singh, Panchaal Bhattocharjee, Joy Rudrapaul, Udit Kumar, Sudheer Kumar Yadav et al.

Back Matter

Editors and affiliations, department of vegetables & floriculture, agricultural research institute, patna, india.

Shashank Shekhar Solankey

Meenakshi Kumari

About the editors

Dr. Shashank Shekhar Solankey is presently working as Assistant Professor– cum –Jr. Scientist (Vegetable Science) at Agricultural Research Institute, Patna (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, India). He has completed his Master’s Degree in Vegetable Science from Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya (India) in 2006 and Doctorate in Horticulture from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India) in 2010. Dr. Solankey has served as SRF as well as RA at ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi (U.P.) from 2010 – 2012. He has joined as Assistant Professor– cum –Jr. Scientist (Vegetable Science) at Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour on 17 th September, 2012. He has been involved in teaching, research, extension and training activities at the university. Thereafter, he was deputed at newly established Dr. Kalam Agricultural College, Kishanganj under the umbrella of BAU, Sabour on 7 th September, 2015 and acted as Nodal Officer of newly established Horticulture Research Centre, Kishanganj, Bihar from May, 2021 to June, 2022. He has handled four research projects on vegetable crops as P.I./ Co-P.I. with the objective of biotic and abiotic stress management as well as quality improvement in solanaceous vegetables and okra at B.A.U., Sabour. He has been associated with development of two brinjal varieties (Sabour Sadabahar & Sabour Krishnakali) and one technology on ‘Management of sucking pests in okra’. He is now handling two State Non-plan research projects on “Improvement of okra genotypes for YVMV tolerance” and “Collection, evaluation and assessment of feasibility of promising vegetables for Bihar”. Dr. Solankey has supervised 4 M.Sc. students and also acted as member of advisory committee of 7 M.Sc. and 3 Ph.D. students. He has published 56 research papers, 07 review papers, 01 souvenir paper, 08 edited books, 01 authored book, 50 book chapters and 30 popular articles. He is also life member of Horticulture Society of India, New Delhi; Indian Society of Vegetable Science, IIVR, Varanasi; International Society for Noni Science, Perungudi, Chennai; Society for Scientific Development in Agriculture & Technology, Meerut and Bihar Horticulture Society, BAU, Sabour, Bihar. He is also reviewer of International Journal of Plant & Soil Science as well as Scientia Horticulturae . Dr. Solankey has been awarded with Best Teacher Award (2016) as well as Best Researcher Award (2016) by Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour. Beside these, he has also been recipient of 13 other awards and recognitions.

Dr. Meenakshi Kumari is presently working as Assistant Professor in Department of Vegetable Science at Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India. She has specialization in Vegetable Science. She acquired Masters in Horticulture (Vegetable & Floriculture) from Bihar AgriculturalUniversity, Sabour (Bhagalpur), Bihar in 2016 and Doctorate in Vegetable Science from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (India)in 2019. She got first rank in both Masters and Doctoral degree programme. She has qualified ICAR-ASRB NET examination in the Discipline of Vegetable Science in 2017 and qualified CAR-SRF exam in 2016. She has also been selected for the DST- Inspire fellowship for her Doctorate programme, by the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India. Presently, Dr. Kumari is guiding 3 Master’s Students. She has published 27research papers (national & international), 05 review papers, 31 book chapters,03 books, 01 manual, 15 popular articles and above 35 abstracts/ extended summary. Dr. Kumari has been awarded with Best Oral Presentation Awards (2018), Best Article Award (2018) and Best Thesis Award (2018) as well as has 07 other awards/ recognitions. She is also life member of Horticulture Society of India, New Delhiand Indian Science Congress, Kolkata, India.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a Changing Climate Vol. 2

Editors : Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Meenakshi Kumari

Series Title : Advances in Olericulture

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20840-9

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences , Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-20839-3 Published: 03 January 2023

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-20842-3 Published: 04 January 2024

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-20840-9 Published: 01 January 2023

Series ISSN : 2367-4083

Series E-ISSN : 2367-4091

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVII, 369

Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations

Topics : Agriculture , Environment, general , Plant Genetics and Genomics

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Advances in research on the carrot, an important root vegetable in the Apiaceae family

1 State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Biology and Germplasm Enhancement of Horticultural Crops in East China, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, 210095 Nanjing, China

Guang-Long Wang

2 School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, 223003 Huaian, China

Zhi-Sheng Xu

Guo-fei tan, ya-hui wang, ahmed khadr.

3 Faculty of Agriculture, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt

Ai-Sheng Xiong

Carrots ( Daucus carota L.), among the most important root vegetables in the Apiaceae family, are cultivated worldwide. The storage root is widely utilized due to its richness in carotenoids, anthocyanins, dietary fiber, vitamins and other nutrients. Carrot extracts, which serve as sources of antioxidants, have important functions in preventing many diseases. The biosynthesis, metabolism, and medicinal properties of carotenoids in carrots have been widely studied. Research on hormone regulation in the growth and development of carrots has also been widely performed. Recently, with the development of high-throughput sequencing technology, many efficient tools have been adopted in carrot research. A large amount of sequence data has been produced and applied to improve carrot breeding. A genome editing system based on CRISPR/Cas9 was also constructed for carrot research. In this review, we will briefly summarize the origins, genetic breeding, resistance breeding, genome editing, omics research, hormone regulation, and nutritional composition of carrots. Perspectives about future research work on carrots are also briefly provided.

Carrots: past and future

China accounts for nearly half of the total global production of carrots and advances in genetic technologies are contributing to improve both crop quality and yield. Cultivated carrot is the second most popular vegetable in the world after potato; this can be largely attributed to their taste and their nutritional benefits. Ai-Sheng Xiong and colleagues at Nanjing Agricultural University, China, review the latest studies on the origin and breeding of carrots. Understanding the genetic sequence and gene expression patterns in carrot plants provides valuable insights into their evolution as well as into the mechanisms underlying their resistance to disease, production of healthy carotenoids and environmental stress tolerance. Future application of gene editing technologies will help to further improve crop production and the nutritional value of carrots.

Introduction

Carrot ( Daucus carota L.), a biennial herbaceous species, is a member of the Apiaceae family 1 . The cultivated carrots are mainly classified into eastern carrots and western carrots based on pigmentation in the carrot roots 2 . Eastern carrots are thought to originate from Afghanistan, while the origin of western carrots is still uncertain 2 , 3 . The roots of most eastern carrots are purple, and some are yellow. They have slightly dissected leaves and branched roots. The roots of most western carrots are orange, red or white. The leaves of western carrots are highly dissected, and the roots are unbranched 2 , 4 . Currently, orange carrots are becoming more popular and more widely cultivated in the world.

The carrot storage root is a good source of carotenoids, vitamins, and dietary fiber and is also rich in minerals and antioxidants 5 , 6 . With increasing health awareness, carrots are becoming more popular due to their abundant nutrients and benefits for human health. The majority of studies on carrots have focused on cultivation, breeding, tissue culture, nutrient content, and carotenoid synthesis regulation 7 – 9 . With the development of molecular biology technology, a large amount of information has been produced in research on vegetable crops. As one of the most important members of the Apiaceae family that is widely cultivated around the world, a large number of studies on carrots have also been performed. This review is mainly focused on the domestication, breeding, omics, and chemical composition of carrots. Potential further work in carrot research is also discussed.

Biology and origins

The carrot is a biennial herbaceous species in the Apiaceae family. Carrot roots, which develop from the hypocotyls, have good storage ability. A large amount of carbohydrates are stored in the enlarged taproots for the carrot plant flowering in the second year. The flower of the carrot is a flattened umbrella-shaped umbel (Fig. ​ (Fig.1). 1 ). The umbel is a characteristic for distinguishing carrots from related taxa. The colors of the cultivated carrot flowers are usually white, and the carrot leaves are compound leaves 4 , 10 . The fleshy taproot of the carrot develops from the hypocotyls, and the shape of the carrot root is always conical. The color of the root is varied and includes orange, yellow, purple, red, and white 4 . Different pigment contents are responsible for the different colors. With the further development of sequencing, more functional genes related to pigment synthesis will be found. The basic chromosome number of carrots is 9–11. Most cultivated carrots are diploid (2 n  = 2 x  = 18). The average length of the carrot chromosome is 2.34 μm 11 , 12 . In 2011, Iovene integrated the linkage groups with pachytene chromosomes of carrot through fluorescent in situ hybridization. In the report, the lengths of carrot chromosomes were only 2–4 μm, and the nine chromosomes were classified into three groups. Chromosomes 1, 6, and 8 with subterminal centromeres were a group; chromosomes 2 and 4 with terminal centromeres were a group; and chromosomes 3, 5, 7, and 9 with nearly median centromeres were a group. Among the nine chromosomes, chromosome 1 was the longest chromosome and had a small heterochromatic knob 13 .

a Carrot flower. b Carrot root. c , d Field production of carrot

Carrot is a cool climate crop that can be sown in spring in temperate climate zones or in the autumn or winter in subtropical climate zones 14 . Carrots are biennial plants. Vegetative growth is the main process of the first year of the life cycle to store material for reproductive growth. The flesh taproot collected for eating or selling is the root produced in the first year. Carrots will flower or bolt after vernalization when the roots are left in the ground. The time for vernalization must be at least 6 weeks. However, some wild carrots will flower or bolt with little or no vernalization 15 , 16 .

The time frame and geographical location(s) of the earliest cultivated carrots are still uncertain. In Vavilov’s opinion, Asia Minor and the inner Asiatic regions were the origin centers of cultivated carrots. In addition, regions including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were the basic centers of cultivated carrots in Asia 17 . In the Stolarczyk and Janickan report, Afghanistan was thought to be the first center of carrot diversity, and Turkey was the second 10 . With the development of sequencing technology, many molecular markers have been used in research on plant evolution. In Orizzo and his group’s research, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were adopted to analyze the structure and phylogeny of wild and cultivated carrots. A clear separation was found between wild and cultivated carrots. Based on historical documents and experimental results, central Asia was thought to be one origin of cultivated carrot 18 . All of the above research supports the idea that central Asia was an origin of cultivated carrots.

Domestication

Shape, color and flavor, etc. were surmised as selection criteria in the domestication of carrot 4 , 19 . The cultivated carrot can be mainly classified into the anthocyanin, or eastern-type, carrot (e.g., yellow or purple) and the carotene, or western-type, carrot (e.g., yellow, orange, or red) based on the pigmentation in the roots 1 , 20 , 21 . Western carrots are always cylindrical or tapered cylindrical in shape and have less pubescent leaves, higher provitamin A carotenoid content, and higher sugar content than eastern carrots 1 , 22 . Eastern carrots always have thicker, shorter, narrow, conical roots, have pubescent leaves, flower early, and are poor in provitamin A carotenoid content 1 .

The viewpoint that the eastern-type cultivated carrot was domesticated from the wild carrots in the area around Afghanistan is generally agreed upon 2 , 4 . A recent study based on the transcriptome data analysis also supports the hypothesis that the eastern-type cultivated carrot originated in Western Asia 3 . However, there are still some different viewpoints on the origin of western-type cultivated carrots. The western-type cultivated carrot was thought to originate from eastern-type carrots directly, based on the earliest molecular study about carrot domestication 18 . In contrast, Heywood held the idea that western-type cultivated carrots did not originate directly from the eastern-type carrot 2 . He summarized the hypothesis that there was a secondary domestication event in the domestication of western-type cultivated carrot 2 . According to a recent study, western-type orange carrots may also originate from eastern carrots by introgression from wild carrots 3 . Areas around Afghanistan are generally agreed to be the geographic regions of the first cultivation of eastern-type carrots. To determine the geographic regions of the first cultivation of western-type carrots, more genetic sequencing studies are needed.

Carrot breeding

Male sterile breeding.

Carrot is an allogamous plant. The stamens usually mature earlier than pistils in carrots 24 , 25 . The rate of natural hybrids in carrots is very high, but the value of seed production by natural hybrids is uncertain 26 . Male sterile lines have been used in the hybridization breeding of many crops and have made hybridization breeding easier for many plants that are difficult to breed using artificial emasculation 27 . In heterosis breeding, male sterile lines were also widely used. F 1 -hybrid breeding based on cytoplasmic male sterility is the main method of carrot breeding 28 .

In carrot, “brown anther” type and “petaloid” type are the two types of male sterility 29 – 32 . The stamens of the “brown anther” type are deformed and brown-colored. Morelock has identified this type in many cultivated and wild carrots 33 . The stamens of the “petaloid” type are transformed into a petal-like shape 34 . This type was found by Thompson 31 and Mccollum 32 in wild carrot. The anthesis of the “brown anther” type is blocked at a late stage of meiosis, and the stamens of the “petaloid” type produce no pollen. In carrot breeding, the “petaloid” type of male sterility is used more often. In 2018, Tan et al. found a wild petaloid male sterile carrot line (Wuye-BY). The male sterile carrot line has no swollen storage root, petal or anther. The advantage of the F 1 hybrid is obvious 35 . In their subsequent experiments, they found that the sequence length of ATP synthase subunit 6 (atp6) was shorter in the male sterile line (Wuye-D) and longer in the fertile line (Wuye-L). The atp6 gene is related to the fertility of plants. They thought that the longer atp6 gene was associated with carrot fertility and that the short atp6 gene was associated with carrot male sterility 36 . In a study by Szklarczyk et al., the sequence of the carrot atp9 gene (atp9-1) in petaloid carrots (Sp-cytoplasm) was shorter than the sequence of atp9-3 in N-cytoplasmic plants. In Sp-cytoplasm carrot, the enhanced expression level of atp9-1 was thought to be responsible for the enhanced ATP9 accumulation 37 . However, male sterility is a genocytoplasmic system, and the mutation in the atp6 gene sequence is not enough to determine plant male sterility. More genetic evidence is needed to determine plant male sterility.

Molecular breeding

Molecular marker breeding.

Molecular markers are a new way to identify germplasm resources based on DNA and mRNA polymorphisms. They can be used in identifying core collections and examining the genetic relationship between parents in breeding research 38 . In genetic diversity analysis, molecular markers are also useful 39 . In basic research and breeding of carrots, molecular markers have been widely used.

In a study by Briard and colleagues, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was found to perform better than morphological or isoenzymatic markers in the varietal identification of carrot 40 . In the characterization of genetic diversity in Daucus varieties, 26 accessions of Daucus were discriminated into five Daucus species and seven D. carota subspecies by RAPD and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) 41 . Lian et al. classified 34 carrot resources into 5 groups and 8 subgroups with 20 random primers by RAPD 42 . In the research of Grzebelus and colleagues, RAPD and AFLP were used to analyze the genetic diversity of carrots. Four inbred lines and eight F1 hybrids were identified through AFLP technology 43 . Six sequence-tagged site (STS) primer combinations were used to identify the carrot petaloid type of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). Five CMS lines were classified into two groups, and eight fertile carrots were classified into six groups 44 .

In breeding carrots for resistance to leaf blight, quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping technology was used to identify QTLs in carrots with new genetic backgrounds. Eleven QTLs were found in the two carrots with new genetic backgrounds of resistance to Alternaria dauci 45 . The QTLs for the synthesis of α-carotenes, β-carotenes, carotene lycopene, and precursors have also been found 46 . Among the molecular markers, simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers are an important way to analyze genetic diversity. In the research of Baranski et al., 88 carrot accessions mainly from Europe, North America, and Asia were collected. Thirty SSR loci were fully characterized in these carrot accessions. As a result, the genetic diversity of the Western gene pool was lower than that of the Asian gene pool 47 .

In these studies, many molecular markers have been identified. Among these markers, some are disease resistance-related, some are agricultural trait-related and some reflect genetic diversity. All these markers will play important roles in carrot breeding with the carrot genome sequence database.

Transgenic breeding

Carrot is known as one of the pioneer species in the research of plant tissue culture 48 . The transformation protocols of carrots have also been established over decades. Many transformation methods for carrots have been established. Among the diverse techniques, Agrobacterium -based systems are the most common methods 48 , 49 . Agrobacterium includes A. tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes , and A. tumefaciens is the most common strain in Agrobacterium -based systems. The first carrot transformation based on A. tumefaciens was reported in 1987  50 . According to many optimized transformation protocols of carrot transgenesis systems, explant type, variety, and bacterial strain were found to be the main factors affecting the transformation frequency 48 , 51 . In carrots, roots, cotyledons, hypocotyls, and petioles can all be used as explants. In Pawlicki and his group’s study, the transformation frequency was higher when petioles were used as the explants 51 , 52 . The time of cocultivation was also important. Compared with a cocultivation time of 1 or 7 days, the transformation frequency at a cocultivation time of 2 or 3 days was higher 51 . Following the development of the carrot transformation system, the media was also changed from MS to B5  53 .

In the breeding research on carrots, the genetic engineering method was also adopted. The approach based on overexpressing functional genes was widely used. In the research of Wally et al., functional genes ( OsPOC1 , OsPrx114 , and AtNPR1 ) from other species were overexpressed in carrots to enhance fungal and disease resistance. The transgenic lines overexpressing OsPrx114 displayed high disease resistance compared with the control 54 . In addition to resistance breeding, genetic engineering was also used to accumulate some special components by overexpressing characteristic genes in carrots. In the research of Luchakivskaya et al., HuINFα-2b was overexpressed in carrots to enhance the accumulation of human interferon alpha-2b protein. The transgenic lines expressing HuINFα-2b were thought to be useful in curing various viral diseases 55 .

In recent years, the genome editing method based on the CRISPR/Cas9 system has developed rapidly. This genome editing system has been applied in many spaces, including humans, mice, and plants 56 – 58 . The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a fast and easy way to edit the genome. In 2018, this genome editing system was first employed in carrot research. Klimek-Chodacka et al. knocked out the F3H gene in carrots and validated the importance of this gene in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin 59 . Xu et al. used the CRISPR/Cas9 system to knock out DcPDS in orange carrots and the DcMYB113-like gene in purple carrots, and the editing efficiencies were 35.35% and 36.4%, respectively 60 . These results suggest that the CRISPR/Cas9 system will be an important and useful method for further research on gene function in carrots.

The transformation method of carrots has matured. Transgenic breeding of carrots has been widely applied in experimental studies, and many important functional genes have been determined by overexpression or genome editing. However, this method should be used cautiously in field production.

Disease and pest resistance breeding

Aster yellows.

Aster yellows is an insect-vectored carrot disease caused by a mycoplasma-like organism. This disease is one of the important diseases that limits the growth and yield of carrot 61 , 62 . Carrots infected by this typical disease will show stunting, yellowing, leaf bronzing, sterility and leaf-like petals 63 . Breeding carrot disease resistance to aster yellows has been implemented for many years. Gabelman and his collaborators selected breeding lines with high resistance to aster yellows through field evaluation and selection. In the breeding process, “Scarlet Nantes”, “Royal Chantenay”, and “Gold King” were found to have higher resistance to aster yellows and “Danvers 126”, “Py-60”, and “Spartan Bonus 80” were more susceptible 63 .

Fungal leaf blight

Fungal leaf blight is a kind of foliar disease in the cultivation of carrots. Fungal leaf blights are mainly caused by A. dauci (Kühn) and Cercospora carotae (Pass.) Solheim around the world 64 . A. dauci lesions always occur on older leaves, and C. carotae lesions always occur on new leaves in carrots 65 – 67 . Fungal leaf blights are found to cause yield loss by reducing leaf photosynthetic area and breaking carrot petioles. The A. dauci and C. carotae lesions can break carrot seedlings by girdling their petioles 68 . Breeding for leaf blight resistance has been performed for many years. The less-susceptible cultivars are found to have characteristics that delay the spread rate of pathogens. According to Gugino’s report, “Bolero”, “Carson”, “Calgary”, “Ithaca”, and “Fullback” were the cultivars that were less susceptible to A. dauci , and “Bolero”, “Carson”, and “Bergen” were the cultivars that were less susceptible to C . carotae 68 . In the research of Le Clerc et al., QTL mapping technology was adopted for the resistance breeding of leaf blight, and 11 QTLs related to resistance to A. dauci were found 45 .

The carrot fly, Psila rosae F. (Diptera: Psilidae), is the most serious and widespread pest in carrot production 69 . Carrot leaves turn red, orange or rust- colored, and roots present rusty brown scars and tunnels when infected by carrot flies. Carrots infected by carrot flies are inedible and unmarketable 70 . Reports about carrot fly resistance breeding are available from more than 100 years ago 69 . From 1977 to 1978, Ellis and his group performed carrot fly resistance breeding at 12 different locations in England. A total of eight varieties with different resistances were cultivated, including “Clause’s Sytan Original”, “Gelbe Rheinische”, “Vertou LD”, “Clause’s Jaune Obtuse de Doubs”, “Royal Chantenay Elite (Rota) No.275”, “Long Chantenay”, “Danvers Half Long 126”, and “St. Valery”. Among the eight varieties, “Sytan”, cultivated in Nantes, showed the highest resistances to carrot fly 71 . To compare the difference between carrots with different resistances to carrot flies, “Sytan” (most resistant) and “Danvers” (least resistant) were chosen for comparison. The results of the comparative experiment suggested that carrots with high resistance to carrot flies reduce fly damage by delaying the development of larvae 70 . To overcome the effect of environmental factors in variety selection, Ellis and his group developed inbred carrots by using a single seed descent program. A total of nine carrot lines with moderate resistance to carrot fly were selected and seeded 72 . Many other reports about carrot fly resistance breeding have shown that “Sytan” is the variety with the highest resistance. The resistance of “Sytan” to carrot flies has been demonstrated in Canada, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, and the UK 69 , 73 – 75 . During breeding progress, it was realized that varieties with high carrot fly resistance have lower levels of chlorogenic acid than varieties with low resistance 76 . The concentration of chlorogenic acid may be used as a selection criterion to select a variety with high resistance to carrot flies. However, reports about genetic research into the resistance to carrot flies in carrots are still scarce.

Root-knot nematodes

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) are significant pests that are widely present in plants 77 . In many carrot-producing regions, RKNs are major pests that limit carrot production 78 . In cooler producing regions, Meloidogyne hapla is the most prevalent. In warmer producing areas, Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne incognita are the predominant RKN species 79 . The characteristics of RKNs (present in soil and having a broad host range) and the limited use of nematicides lead to difficulty in controlling the pathogen 80 . To guarantee carrot quality, it is necessary to perform root-knot nematode resistance breeding in carrots. Huang et al. found that “Brasilia” and “Tropical” are resistant to M. javanica 81 , 82 . “Brasilia” is the most promising source of resistance to M. javanica 83 , 84 . Through the use of molecular markers (RPAD and QTL), a locus named Mj-1 that imparts resistance to M. javanica was found in the “Brasilia” cultivar 79 , 85 . The Mj-1 locus is mapped on chromosome 8  79 . In 2014, another locus that imparts resistance to M. javanica was mapped in the cultivar “PI652188” and named Mj-2. Mj-2 is also on chromosome 8 but does not map to the same locus as Mj-1  86 . The discovery of Mj-1 and Mj-2 is meaningful for the root-knot nematode resistance breeding of carrots.

Omics research

Genomics research.

Over the past few decades, sequencing technology has developed rapidly, and more than 100 plant genomes have been sequenced 7 . As the most important vegetable in the Apiaceae family, the carrot genome was also sequenced. In 2014, a genomic database for the carrot was released. This database provides de novo assembled whole-genome sequences and classified transcription factor families of carrots, which is helpful for further research on carrots 87 . Two years later, a high-quality carrot genome (421.5 Mb) was released. In this study, the evolution of the carrot genome was analyzed, and two new whole-genome duplications (WGDs) were identified. The two WGD possibilities occurred ~43 and ~70 million years ago, respectively. Furthermore, DCAR_032551 was hypothesized to play roles in regulating photomorphogenesis and root de-etiolation of carrots. Based on the whole-genome sequencing of carrots, 32,113 genes were predicted. Among the 32,113 genes, 10,530 genes unique to carrots were found 88 . In 2018, the genome sequence data for “Kurodagosun”, a major carrot cultivar in Japan and China, was also released 89 . All of these genome sequence data will significantly promote research on carrot evolution, carotenoid synthesis, and many other important projects in carrots. The genome in Iorizzo’s research (421.5 Mb) is obviously larger than that in Wang’s research (371.6 Mb), which suggests a difference between the sequencing quality in the two studies. The genome data in Iorizzo’s research have higher quality and were analyzed more deeply. The database published by Xu provides a tool for researchers to download gene sequences from Wang’s research. In future research, the two carrot genome datasets should be combined in carrot studies.

The plastid genome of carrots has also been sequenced. In 2006, the plastid genome of carrot was sequenced by Ruhlman et al. The length of the carrot plastid genome is 155,911 bp with 115 unique genes. The results from that research provided a valuable resource for phylogenetic analysis among different angiosperms. In the phylogenetic analysis, the bootstrap values between Daucus and Panax were all 100% in the Maximum parsimony (MP) tree and Maximum likelihood (ML) tree. The results strongly supported the sister relationship between Daucus and Panax 90 .

Transcriptomic research

Transcriptomics is an approach to studying gene expression by measuring all mRNA transcripts in one cell or tissue. The transcriptome sequence dataset is widely used in analyzing gene expression, discovering gene functions, and developing molecular markers 91 , 92 . In carrot research, transcriptomics was also widely adopted. In 2011, to build a molecular resource for revealing new markers and novel genes, the carrot transcriptome was de novo assembled and characterized by Simon’s group. To our knowledge, this transcriptome is the first transcriptome of carrot. Based on transcriptome sequencing, 114 computationally polymorphic SSRs and 20,058 SNPs were identified. In addition, polymorphisms were found predominantly between inbred lines 93 . Xiong’s group established the transcriptomic database (CarrotDB) in 2014. The database was established based on transcriptomic sequences from 14 carrot genotypes 87 .

To further investigate the domestication of carrots, the root transcriptomes of six cultivated carrots and five wild carrots were sequenced. Rong et al. thought that some other wild D. carota subspecies should also be involved in the research of carrot domestication. In cultivated carrots, the expression of the water-channel-protein gene and carotenoid-binding-protein gene was upregulated, and the expression of allergen-protein-like genes was silenced 3 . All these results revealed the potential role of regulators of gene expression in domestication. The western carrots were thought to originate from eastern carrots based on the analysis of transcriptome data from different cultivated and wild carrots.

Phytohormones play important roles in controlling plant root growth and development. As a root vegetable, the effect of hormones on carrot root growth should be investigated. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of hormones on carrot root growth, the transcriptomes of four different developmental stages were sequenced. A total of 4818 unigenes with differential expression between the four stages were identified. Among the 4818 unigenes, 87 genes were found to be involved in the hormone-related pathway 94 . The transcriptome analysis of the key genes involved in the biosynthesis and signaling pathway of phytohormones helped to clarify the roles of hormones during root development.

To investigate the biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot leaves and roots, Ma et al. sequenced the transcriptome of carrot leaves and roots. Based on the transcriptome data, DcPSY1 was thought to be the crucial factor responsible for the higher carotenoid content in carrot leaves. DcLBCY , DcLECY , and DcZEP1 may be responsible for the differences in carotene and xanthophyll levels between carrot leaves and roots 95 .

Depending on the demands of different studies, various transcriptome sequence datasets have been generated. All the datasets are the sequences of genes that are expressed under certain conditions. Transcriptomics promotes research on carrots, and many single important genes were found through this method. On the other hand, research on the relationship among different genes is also interesting. In the future, more research on the interaction among genes based on transcriptome sequence datasets should be performed in carrots.

microRNA research

microRNAs (miRNAs) are a type of noncoding small RNA ~20–24 nucleotides in length 96 . Numerous studies have found that plant miRNAs preferentially target transcription factors and play important roles in regulating plant development 97 . miRNAs are also important participants in responses to abiotic and biotic stresses 98 . As a consensus, miRNA may be an important research object in research on improving the agronomic characteristics of crops.

The first carrot microRNA database was reported in 2013. Seventeen microRNAs were identified from the research. The 17 microRNAs came from 12 different families (dca-mir-156, 160, 167, 172, 774, 778, 854, 1310, 5015, 5030, 5658 and 5664). In analyzing the potential targets of the 17 microRNAs, 24 targets were determined. Among the 24 potential targets, 8 were transcription factors, 6 were stress related, 5 were involved in metabolism and 4 were related to plant growth. Most targets identified in the research have also been reported as microRNA targets in other plants 99 . The microRNA database and the findings are valuable resources for further research in improving the agronomic characteristics of carrots. Unfortunately, research about the microRNA in carrots is still scarce.

Proteomic research

Proteomics is an important technology for studying the growth, development, and stress responses of plants by systematically analyzing the plant proteome. This technology is an important complement to the genome 100 , 101 . Through proteomics, numerous proteins involved in the complex signaling and metabolic network of plants can be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed 100 . In stress-response research in plants, proteomics has proven to be a powerful method and has been used in studying drought, flooding, and nutritional stress responses 102 . Furthermore, proteomics has also been widely used in studying the mechanisms and biological processes of plants, such as fruit ripening, seed germination, and floral development 103 .

In the research of Louarn et al., proteomics was used to analyze changes in the proteome of carrots during cold storage. Carrots cultivated in two different cropping systems were selected as the research object. A total of 15 proteins were found to change in levels in the first month of storage. Between the two different cropping systems, the change in protein level was small. Among the 15 proteins, three were related to the stress response, and three were related to the cytoskeleton. The research indicated that carrot roots have an adaptation to the low temperature within the first month of cold storage 104 . In the research of Wang et al., isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) were used to investigate the impact of elevated carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) on carrot growth and development. Through proteome sequencing, they found a potential molecular mechanism for the altered lignin content in carrot roots induced by elevated CO 2 105 . Proteomic technology provides a powerful way to understand the complex signaling and metabolic network of plant physiological progress and can contribute to further investigation of improving carrot yield and nutrition.

Metabolomic research

Metabolomics is a kind of functional genomics that measures all small molecules (molecular masses ≤ 1500 Da) in a cell or a tissue. The cell or the tissue measured is always in a particular physiological or developmental state 106 . This is a novel approach to performing qualitative and quantitative studies on plant biochemistry at a global level. Metabolomics has been widely adopted to study plant metabolism and food quality 107 .

To investigate the difference between wild and cultivated carrots, Grebenstein et al. constructed the metabolic fingerprinting of wild (“Dutch”) and cultivated (western orange) carrots through nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Differences between the two kinds of carrots only appeared at the quantitative level in the metabolic content. The metabolome of the hybrid of wild and cultivated carrots showed high similarity to that of the maternal carrot. The maternal characteristics and maternal environment may be the factors leading to the similar metabolic content between hybrid and maternal carrots 108 .

In carrot breeding research, metabolomics is also used as a powerful tool. In Leiss and his group’s research, metabolomics was adopted to investigate the resistance of different carrot varieties to Western flower thrips. A cultivated carrot (Ingot) was found to have the highest resistance. The wild and biofortified carrots did not show distinct resistance to the thrips. The contents of the flavanoid luteolin, the phenylpropanoid sinapic acid and the amino acid balanine were more abundant in the resistant carrots. These results were useful in the research of thrip resistance breeding in carrots 109 .

In 2014, the metabolomes of five carrot varieties were measured by NMR to study the effect of genotype on the metabolite components of carrot. In this study, orange carrot varieties were found to be more abundant in the contents of sucrose and β-carotene and to be lacking in the contents of fructose and glucose. The difference between yellow and white carrot varieties was unclear. Genetic differences, growing strategies, and soil types were finally determined to be the factors that affect the composition of different carrot varieties. The results are useful in breeding to improve carrot quality 110 .

Hormone regulation

Phytohormones are important regulators of plant growth and environmental responses. They are involved in almost all physiological processes during the growth and development of plants, such as cell division, growth and differentiation, flowering, seed development, and senescence 111 , 112 . Cytokinins (CK), abscisic acid (ABA), auxins (Aux), ethylene (ET), gibberellins (GA), brassinosteroids (BR) and jasmonates (JA) are the most studied hormones in plants 111 . Among these hormones, Aux, GA, BR and CK are mainly related to plant development; JA and ET are mainly related to plant defense; and ABA is related to the abiotic stress response 111 , 113 . Research on the roles of ABA, GA, BR, CK, Aux, and JA in growth and development of carrots has been performed.

Auxin is a pivotal plant hormone whose cellular level is important for regulating plant growth and development. Fruit formation, leaf abscission, cell division, and cell elongation were all reported to be regulated by auxin 114 , 115 . Among the different kinds of naturally active auxins, IAA is the best studied 116 . In the research of Wu et al., contents of IAA changed obviously at different growth stages and showed distinct discrepancies in different organs. In addition, 18 genes involved in the biosynthesis and signaling pathway of IAA were identified. The way that IAA regulates carrot growth and development may be tissue-specific 117 . However, there are few reports on the effect of exogenous IAA on the field production of carrots.

Gibberellins

Gibberellins are diterpenoid compounds. Through the whole life cycle of plants, GAs play pivotal roles in regulating growth and development, including seed germination, stem elongation, flowering, and fruit development 118 . In cellular growth, promoting the elongation and expansion of cells are the main functions of GAs. Mutants that are defective in GA biosynthesis are always dwarfs 119 .

During the growth and development of carrots, GAs play pivotal roles. In carrots, the content levels in roots are lower than those in petioles and leaf blades 120 . Through foliar application, exogenous GA 3 promotes the growth of the aboveground part and inhibits the growth of roots 119 . At higher temperatures, GA spray application can influence carrot flowering 121 . The impact of GAs on carrot roots promotes the development of secondary xylem and decreases the proportion of secondary phloem 122 . In a study by Wang et al., exogenous GA 3 was shown to enhance the lignification of carrot roots 123 . In addition, GA was involved in the regulation of the differentiation of embryogenic cells in carrot 124 .

Brassinosteroids

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones, an important kind of plant regulator 125 . To date, more than 70 brassinosteroid compounds have been isolated, and brassinolide is the most bioactive compound 126 . During plant growth and development, BRs are involved in various biological processes, such as the formation of stomata and lateral roots, flowering, and fruit maturation. BRs also play important roles in promoting cell division, vascular differentiation and cell elongation, and enhancing the tolerance of the plant 127 , 128 . The spatiotemporal distribution of brassinosteroid activity is a decisive factor that influences the function of BRs 129 . However, the precise spatial and subcellular distribution of BRs in plant organs is still unclear. Regarding the biosynthesis and signal transduction of BRs, the related genes have been determined by using BR-related mutants in Arabidopsis and many other plants 125 . In carrots, genes involved in the biosynthesis and signal transduction pathways have been identified via transcriptomic research. Foliar application of 24-epibrassinolide was proven to promote the elongation of carrot petioles. The aboveground part of the carrot treated with 24-epibrassinolide was taller and heavier than that without treatment 130 .

Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid (ABA) was first recognized as a plant hormone in the early 1960s 131 . ABA plays important roles in regulating almost all physiological processes during plant growth and development, including seed dormancy, seed germination, and fruit maturity 132 . In the presence of environmental stress, ABA plays important roles in inducing stomatal closure to respond to water deficiency 133 . The concentration of ABA within plants determines the roles of ABA in response to changing physiology. In carrots, most reports about ABA are related to somatic embryogenesis. Kiyosue et al. measured the concentration of endogenous ABA in the embryogenic cells, nonembryogenic cells and somatic embryos of carrot. They found that embryogenic cells had the highest level of ABA 134 . In the research of Nishiwaki et al., ABA was found to be the signal substance in the process of carrot somatic embryogenesis induced by stress 135 . In addition, ABA plays an important role in inducing the secondary embryogenesis of carrot somatic embryos 136 . Huang et al. found that genes involved in the biosynthesis and signal pathway of ABA may be affected by carotenogenesis in carrot 137 . The expression level of DcPSY2 (phytoene synthase) can be induced by salt stress and ABA 138 . In Arabidopsis , salt stress was found to induce carotenoid synthesis to contribute to ABA production 139 . These results suggest a critical relationship between carotenoids and ABA.

Cytokinin (CK) is one of the five classic plant hormones and is widely used in agriculture, industry, and research 140 . Regulating cell division and differentiation is the main function of cytokinins. In some plant physiology processes, CK plays critical roles such as promoting shoot growth, inhibiting root growth, and regulating female gametophyte development 141 . CK also plays important roles in enhancing the tolerance of plants to drought, salt stress, and heat 142 . In carrots, 2-isopentenyladenine and 2-isopentenyladenosine are the major cytokinins, and 2-isopentenyladenine was only detected in carrot roots. The diameter of carrot roots is positively related to the level of CK. The concentration of endogenous CK was found to have a circadian rhythm 143 . In Chen et al., cambium tissues were found to be the cytokinin biosynthetic site in carrots. In the field production of carrots, foliar application of CK could promote the growth of carrots on nitrogen- and phosphate-depleted soil. The application of exogenous CK promotes the synthesis of endogenous CK and stimulates the growth of the cortex in carrots 144 . In the study of Wang et al., CK was thought to serve an important function in the second stage of carrot growth (40 days after sowing) 145 .

Jasmonic acid

Jasmonic acid (JA) and its derivatives originate from lipids of chloroplast membranes 146 . This lipid-derived hormone plays critical roles in plant defense against various abiotic and biotic stresses such as pathogen infection, wounding, ultraviolet radiation, and freezing 147 . In some physiological processes of plant growth, JA also plays roles such as inhibiting root growth, and inducing leaf senescence and flowering 148 . The levels of JA in senescent leaves are significantly higher than those in nonsenescent leaves. The application of exogenous JA was reported to enhance the tolerance of Arabidopsis to low temperature 149 . In carrot, application of MeJA increased the total phenolics in Parano carrot. However, the concentrations of mono- and sesquiterpenes in the leaf were not influenced after MeJA treatment 150 . In Heredia and Cisneros-Zevallos’ research, MeJA application increased the accumulation of phenolics in wounded carrot tissues 151 . In the research of Wang et al., the levels of JA at different growth stages and expression profiles of genes related to JA were measured. They thought that the regulation of JA in carrots was stage-dependent and organ-specific 152 .

Carotenoids

Carotenoids are natural pigments and were found to be present in all photosynthetic organisms. Additionally, carotenoids are known to be good for human health, especially in disease prevention 9 , 153 . According to previous reports, carotenoids function in preventing cancer, cerebrovascular disease (CVD), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cataracts. Their antioxidant properties were thought to be the main factor for the abundant functions of carotenoids 154 . In Krinsky’s research, eating fruit and vegetables that are rich in carotenoids was found to prevent many diseases, such as disorders related to the eye 155 .

In horticultural crops, studies on carotenoids have been widely performed. Tomato, pepper, and carrot were found to be carotenoid-rich vegetables 156 , 157 . Carrot is a kind of root vegetable that has abundant carotenoids accumulating in the root. In the research of Perrin et al., the accumulation of carotenoids was different in the carrots with different root colors. The accumulation in different root tissues was also different. In orange and purple carrot roots, the content of carotenoids in phloem was obviously higher than that in xylem. In the red genotype, the contents of carotenoids in phloem and xylem were similar. The difference in the accumulation in different root tissues was thought to be the result of the different expression patterns of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in specific tissues 158 .

The biosynthesis of carotenoids has been widely studied in plants. In 2002, Santos and Simon identified some putative QTLs that are associated with the accumulation of ξ-carotene, α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene and phytoene in carrot 46 . In 2007, 24 potential carotenoid biosynthesis structural genes were identified by Just et al. Two phytoene synthase ( PSY) genes ( DQ192186 and DQ192187 ) were found in carrots 159 . PSY is an important gene that encodes the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis pathway of carotenoids. The contents of carotenoids in the PSY -overexpressing lines of some vegetables were obviously enhanced 160 – 162 . In the sequencing of the carrot genome, a central gene ( DCAR_032551 ) involved in regulating carotenoid accumulation was found. Furthermore, authors of the genome paper hypothesized that root de-etiolation may be responsible for carotenoid accumulation in carrot roots 163 . In the research of Ma et al., carotenoid contents in six different carrot cultivars were measured. They thought that carotene hydroxylase genes were involved in α-carotene accumulation and xanthophyll formation 164 . Although homologs of all known genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis have been identified in carrots, there are still some questions that need answers, such as the accumulation of carotenoids in nonphotosynthetic carrot roots.

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are widely distributed natural pigments and flavonoids 165 . Anthocyanins play critical roles in the pigmentation of flowers and fruits 166 . In many colored vegetables and fruits such as red cabbage, eggplant, purple corn, purple potato, grape, peach, plum, and pomegranate, anthocyanins were discovered 167 . In plants, anthocyanins can protect plants from strong light by forming light-absorbing screens and scavenging reactive oxygen species when suffering from light stress 168 . Anthocyanins have also been reported to have many health benefits, including prevention of cardiovascular diseases, anticarcinogenic activity, control of diabetes, and improvement of vision 165 . Providing antioxidants was determined to be the main mechanism for anthocyanins to prevent diseases in humans.

Among the cultivars of carrot, the taproot color variety is abundant. The main colors include orange, purple, yellow, red, and white. In the research of Xu et al., the taproot of purple carrots had more anthocyanin accumulation than that of yellow and orange carrots. Only a few anthocyanins were measured in the taproots of orange carrots, and no anthocyanins were measured in yellow carrot roots 169 . The accumulation of anthocyanins in the carrot roots was affected by many factors, including temperature, nutrients, and light 170 . At the molecular level, many studies on the biosynthesis pathway of anthocyanins have been performed in carrots. Phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), chalcone synthase (CHS), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), and leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase (LDOX) are members of the biosynthesis pathway and have been identified in carrots 171 . According to previous reports, the genes DcUCGalT1 , DcMYB6 , and DcUSAGT1 of carrot were involved in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins 172 – 174 . In Yildiz and his group’s research, the expression profiles of six anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes ( CHS1 , FLS1 , F3H , LDOX2 , PAL3 , and UFGT ) were measured. CHS1 , DFR2 , F3H , LDOX2 and PAL3 have the highest expression level in solid purple carrots 175 .

Dietary fiber

Dietary fiber is a class of compounds that mainly includes carbohydrates, polysaccharides, and lignin 176 , 177 . The dietary fibers are further classified into soluble and insoluble fibers. Pectins, gums, and hemicelluloses are soluble fibers, and cellulose is the main component of insoluble fiber. In most foods, insoluble fiber is the main dietary fiber, and the content of soluble fibers is small or negligible. The sources of soluble fibers are limited and include citrus fruits, barley, legumes, oats, avocado, and rye. The sources of insoluble fibers are abundant and include most vegetables and cereal grains 178 .

Dietary fiber is well known and popular as a healthy substance within society. The widely known benefit of dietary fiber is its role in improving gastrointestinal function. Insoluble fiber can improve gastrointestinal function by enhancing the peristalsis of the intestine and increasing the bulk of feces 179 . Another way that insoluble fiber protects the colon is through enhancing the proliferation of microbes 178 . In addition, many other functions of dietary fiber have also been reported, such as moderating the postprandial insulin response, reducing cholesterol, regulating appetite, and reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. Sufficient intake of dietary fiber is good for humans to stay healthy 178 , 180 .

In the storage root of carrot, 1.2–6.44% of the mass is dietary fiber, and 80.94% of the dietary fiber is cellulose 8 , 181 . Carrot is a good material for producing juice, but the carrot pomace is wasted. According to previous reports, the dietary fiber of the carrot pomace was abundant and was higher than that of some other agricultural byproducts, including asparagus and onion. The insoluble dietary fiber in the carrot pomace are mainly composed of pectic polysaccharides, hemicelluloses and cellulose and have desirable functions 177 . As a byproduct, carrot pomace is very abundant and could be chosen as a source of dietary fiber. In the research of Chou et al., reducing particle sizes of the carrot insoluble fiber-rich fraction (IFF) can clearly enhance the function of fiber in gastrointestinal function. Furthermore, the ability of micronized IFF to reduce the concentrations of serum triglycerides, serum total cholesterol, and liver lipids was substantially enhanced 182 .

In the research of Wang et al., most lignin in the carrot root was deposited in the xylem. The proportions of lignin in carrot roots decreased with root development 183 . Hypoxia was also found to enhance the lignification of carrot roots 184 . As a promising source of dietary fiber, carrot should be further studied.

Other compounds

Carrot is well known as being a good carotenoid provider. Moreover, carrot roots also contain many other beneficial contents, including vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals 6 , 185 . According to Li et al., sugars, glucose, fructose and starch are the main types of carbohydrates in carrot storage roots 181 . The biosynthesis of the sources is thought to be regulated by DcSus genes in carrot 186 . There are also many minerals in carrot roots, such as potassium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and iron. In the research of Nicolle et al., potassium was found to be the most abundant mineral in carrots 6 . Among these minerals, the content of iron, sodium and magnesium is highly dependent on the carrot variety, whereas the content of potassium and calcium is not 187 . In addition, carrot roots are a good source of vitamin E and ascorbic acid. The concentrations of vitamin E and ascorbic acid in carrots are approximately 191−703 μg and 1.4−5.8 mg per 100 g fresh weight, respectively 6 .

Conclusions and future perspectives

Vegetables are good sources of nutritious substances such as vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. With the increasing requirement for healthy diets, vegetables are becoming increasingly popular. Scientific studies on vegetables have become more necessary. Studies on vegetables have been substantially promoted by the use of many new technologies. As a nutritious root vegetable, carrots are popular and cultivated around the world. Many studies on the germplasm resource, breeding, tissue culture, and molecular research of carrots have been reported. Future research on carrots may focus on the following aspects.

Improving the genome editing system

The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a highly efficient genome editing method developed in recent years. This system was first used in editing the human genome in 2013 and was then widely employed in editing the genomes of other species. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been successfully applied in many plant species, including rice, Arabidopsis thaliana , soybean, maize, and liverwort. This system is an efficient technology for targeting and modifying DNA sequences of interest and is a useful way to study gene functions and crop improvement. However, this efficient tool has not been widely used in carrot research. Improving the CRISPR/Cas9 system in carrots and employing it for carrot improvement should be a focus in the future.

Mining functional genes

The carrot genome has been sequenced, and the genome sequence data have been released. With the rapid development of sequencing technology, many omics technologies, such as transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have been employed in carrot research. A large amount of data generated from these studies provides a potential reference for mining carrot functional genes. Genes controlling root genotype, disease resistance, and cytoplasmic male sterility are candidates to be further identified and determined in future research work. Mining functional genes will guide and promote the breeding work of carrots. The genes that control the swelling progress of carrot roots are still unidentified. With the development of sequencing technology, many opportunities will present themselves for research on the swelling of carrot roots.

Developing the medicinal value of carrots

Carrot storage roots contain abundant biologically active substances. Many of these substances are important for human health. Carrots are used to make juice and dietary fiber in the food industry. In medicinal use, there has been little research on the pharmacological mechanism of many active substances in carrots. Many antioxidants, such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, and polyacetylene, provided by carrots play important roles in preventing disease. With increasing health awareness, the active substances in carrots have good research value and prospects for medicinal use. More future work may focus on developing the medicinal uses of carrots.

Use of hormones in carrot field production

The human population is increasing rapidly around the world, and a substantial increase in agricultural productivity is needed. Through promoting plant growth and enhancing tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, plant hormones provide an opportunity to improve crop production. However, prohibitive costs restrict the widespread and continuous application of hormones in yield production. In carrots, there are almost no reports about the use of hormones in field production. In our opinion, plant hormone application in carrot yield production is worthy of further study. The interaction between human health and hormone application also needs to be studied. In the research on brassinosteroids, the application of brassinosteroids was reported to have no negative impact on human health. In clinical studies, only a very high concentration of brassinosteroids (1000 mg/kg) led to some undesirable side effects in rats 188 , 189 . However, there are few clinical studies on the application of other hormones. More future work may focus on the use of hormones in carrot field production, including application method and efficiency. At the same time, more clinical studies should be performed to investigate the interactions between human health and hormone application.

Acknowledgements

The research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31872098), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province 10.1038/s41438-019-0150-6 supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31872098), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20170460) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Search in PubMed Search in NLM Catalog Add to Search Fruits, vegetables, and health: A comprehensive narrative, umbrella review of the science and recommendations for enhanced public policy to improve intake Affiliations. 1 Department of Nutrition and Food Studies, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA. 2 Think Healthy Group, Inc., Washington, DC, USA. 3 Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA. 4 Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. 5 Center for Nutrition Research, Institute for Food Safety and Health, Illinois Institute of Technology, Bedford Park, Illinois, USA. 6 Biofortis Research, Merieux NutriSciences, Addison, Illinois, USA. 7 Department of Human Nutrition, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA. 8 Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. 9 School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA. 10 Bone and Body Composition Laboratory, College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA. 11 College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 12 Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA. 13 D&V Systematic Evidence Review, Bronx, New York, USA. PMID: 31267783 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1632258 Fruit and vegetables (F&V) have been a cornerstone of healthy dietary recommendations; the 2015-2020 U.S. Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that F&V constitute one-half of the plate at each meal. F&V include a diverse collection of plant foods that vary in their energy, nutrient, and dietary bioactive contents. F&V have potential health-promoting effects beyond providing basic nutrition needs in humans, including their role in reducing inflammation and their potential preventive effects on various chronic disease states leading to decreases in years lost due to premature mortality and years lived with disability/morbidity. Current global intakes of F&V are well below recommendations. Given the importance of F&V for health, public policies that promote dietary interventions to help increase F&V intake are warranted. This externally commissioned expert comprehensive narrative, umbrella review summarizes up-to-date clinical and observational evidence on current intakes of F&V, discusses the available evidence on the potential health benefits of F&V, and offers implementation strategies to help ensure that public health messaging is reflective of current science. This review demonstrates that F&V provide benefits beyond helping to achieve basic nutrient requirements in humans. The scientific evidence for providing public health recommendations to increase F&V consumption for prevention of disease is strong. Current evidence suggests that F&V have the strongest effects in relation to prevention of CVDs, noting a nonlinear threshold effect of 800 g per day (i.e., about 5 servings a day). A growing body of clinical evidence (mostly small RCTs) demonstrates effects of specific F&V on certain chronic disease states; however, more research on the role of individual F&V for specific disease prevention strategies is still needed in many areas. Data from the systematic reviews and mostly observational studies cited in this report also support intake of certain types of F&V, particularly cruciferous vegetables, dark-green leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, and dark-colored berries, which have superior effects on biomarkers, surrogate endpoints, and outcomes of chronic disease. Keywords: Fruit; health; nutrition; produce; vegetable. PubMed Disclaimer Similar articles Time to address continued poor vegetable intake in Australia for prevention of chronic disease. Chapman K, Havill M, Watson WL, Wellard L, Hughes C, Bauman A, Allman-Farinelli M. Chapman K, et al. Appetite. 2016 Dec 1;107:295-302. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.08.003. Epub 2016 Aug 10. Appetite. 2016. PMID: 27522036 Fruit and vegetable intake in young children. Dennison BA, Rockwell HL, Baker SL. Dennison BA, et al. J Am Coll Nutr. 1998 Aug;17(4):371-8. doi: 10.1080/07315724.1998.10718778. J Am Coll Nutr. 1998. PMID: 9710848 Fruit and Vegetable Intake and Mental Health in Adults: A Systematic Review. Głąbska D, Guzek D, Groele B, Gutkowska K. Głąbska D, et al. Nutrients. 2020 Jan 1;12(1):115. doi: 10.3390/nu12010115. Nutrients. 2020. PMID: 31906271 Free PMC article. Cardiovascular Health Benefits of Specific Vegetable Types: A Narrative Review. Blekkenhorst LC, Sim M, Bondonno CP, Bondonno NP, Ward NC, Prince RL, Devine A, Lewis JR, Hodgson JM. Blekkenhorst LC, et al. Nutrients. 2018 May 11;10(5):595. doi: 10.3390/nu10050595. Nutrients. 2018. PMID: 29751617 Free PMC article. Review. Guidelines for the intake of vegetables and fruit: the Mediterranean approach. Trichopoulou A, Naska A, Vasilopoulou E. Trichopoulou A, et al. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2001 May;71(3):149-53. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831.71.3.149. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2001. PMID: 11582835 Review. Mixed Methods Study Investigating Adolescent Acceptance and Implementation Outcomes of Serving Spicy Vegetables in School Lunch. Siebert E, Lee SY, Philips C, Prescott MP. Siebert E, et al. Curr Dev Nutr. 2024 Jul 25;8(8):104425. doi: 10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.104425. eCollection 2024 Aug. Curr Dev Nutr. 2024. PMID: 39224143 Free PMC article. Cruciferous vegetables lower blood pressure in adults with mildly elevated blood pressure in a randomized, controlled, crossover trial: the VEgetableS for vaScular hEaLth (VESSEL) study. Connolly EL, Liu AH, Radavelli-Bagatini S, Shafaei A, Boyce MC, Wood LG, McCahon L, Koch H, Sim M, Hill CR, Parmenter BH, Bondonno NP, Devine A, Croft KD, Mithen R, Gan SK, Schultz CJ, Woodman RJ, Bondonno CP, Lewis JR, Hodgson JM, Blekkenhorst LC. Connolly EL, et al. BMC Med. 2024 Sep 2;22(1):353. doi: 10.1186/s12916-024-03577-8. BMC Med. 2024. PMID: 39218859 Free PMC article. Clinical Trial. Effects of Different Combinations of Phytochemical-Rich Fruits and Vegetables on Chronic Disease Risk Markers and Gene Expression Changes: Insights from the MiBLEND Study, a Randomized Trial. DeBenedictis JN, Murrell C, Hauser D, van Herwijnen M, Elen B, de Kok TM, van Breda SG. DeBenedictis JN, et al. Antioxidants (Basel). 2024 Jul 29;13(8):915. doi: 10.3390/antiox13080915. Antioxidants (Basel). 2024. PMID: 39199161 Free PMC article. Diet affects inflammatory arthritis: a Mendelian randomization study of 30 dietary patterns causally associated with inflammatory arthritis. Wang H, Wu Q, Qu P, Wang S, Du S, Peng Z, Tao L, Wang W, Tang X. Wang H, et al. Front Nutr. 2024 Jul 17;11:1426125. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1426125. eCollection 2024. Front Nutr. 2024. PMID: 39086544 Free PMC article. Berry Fruits and Their Improving Potential on Skeletal Muscle Health and Performance: A Systematic Review of the Evidence in Animal and in Human Studies. Moroni A, Zupo R, Castellana F, Amirante F, Zese M, Rondanelli M, Riso P, Perna S. Moroni A, et al. Foods. 2024 Jul 13;13(14):2210. doi: 10.3390/foods13142210. Foods. 2024. PMID: 39063294 Free PMC article. Review. Publication types Search in MeSH LinkOut - more resources Full text sources. Taylor & Francis Citation Manager NCBI Literature Resources MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) had its genesis from establishment of an Agricultural School at Saidapet, Madras, Tamil Nadu, as early as 1868 and it was later relocated at Coimbatore. Get in touch [email protected] 0422 6611200 Monday to Friday: 9am to 5pm Agri Business Pro Chancellor Vice Chancellor Board of Management Academic Council Bachelor’s Degree Student life Administrative Setup Doctoral Programmes Collaborations Affiliated Colleges Constituent Colleges Ph.D (Hort) in Vegetable science Vegetable crops established its credibility in improving income through increased productivity, generating employment and enhancing exports. Vegetable cultivation has also marked its significance with high yield potential per unit area and plays vital role in alleviation of malnutrition, high market price, processing, seed production, nursery seedling production, value addition, export, employment generation and livelihood improvement. Modern Vegetable Science deals with improved production technologies, breedimg, physiology, biochemistry, crop protection and other allied fields to impart specialized technologies in vegetables called Vegetable Science. Why this programme? By studying Vegetable Science course Students could understand the scientific vegetable cultivation and advanced breeding methods. Gaining knowledge on development of new improved varieties and hybrids in vegetable crops Understanding the importance of neglected and underutilized vegetable crops It is an upcoming science with enormous scope in the various fields like, in its cultivation, processing industry, seed production & commercial nursery raising units and creates Entrepreneurships. Study Programme The Masters programme in Vegetable Science has been designed following the UGC guidelines. The course imparts: Vegetable science students an enabling environment for better learning Develop globally competitive human capacity in Vegetable science Promote research on frontier areas of Vegetable science for developing high performance and nutrient rich crop varieties Promote research on advanced cultivation techniques, Post harvest and value addition in Vegetable crops. Promote Self employment and Entrepreneurship of Vegetable Science students Application and Admission Interested in taking part in the programme of Vegetable Scinece? Find out more about the specific  Admission requirements and the application procedures . If you doubt whether admission is possible, feel welcome  to apply online . The Admission Committee will check your admissibility. Future Career Assistant Director of Horticulture Assistant Professor ASRB Scientists ICAR KVK - Subject Matter Specialist (SMS) Research Associate’s and Research Fellow’s Vegetable Breeder’s in Private Sectors Farm Manager in Private Farms Fertilizer and seed companies Self Employment in High value Vegetable Crops under Protected cultivation (Green House, Poly House, Hydroponics, Aeroponics). Master’s in Vegetable course Master Courses After admission the students undergo a set of courses that help them to understand the basic aspects in crop improvement, management and post harvest and value addition in Vegetable Crops as per the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) with a total credit load of 40 credits and 30 credits are exclusively earmarked for their Thesis Research. Master’s thesis research After completing the courses in the first year, the students start their thesis research. Each student is assigned to an experienced faculty, approved by the Dean of School of Post-Graduate Studies, who would guide the student on his/ her choice of research topic. Student Experiences I’m A. Fahima Fathima , a research scholar at the Department of Vegetable Science. Being enrolled to this campus gave me the chance to participate in a number of seminars, workshops, national and international conferences. We are fortunate to have eminent professors as our guides and faculty members so that we can carry out our research and learn more about our discipline. For conducting molecular research, our college is furnished with a multitude of facilities, including a molecular lab and a micro analytical lab. The chance to take advanced courses in topics like genomics and bioinformatics, cellular and chromosomal manipulations in crop improvement, vegetable production, and vegetable crop breeding have been provided to us. We are given labours who are really helpful to complete our work easily in order to complete our research in a timely manner, especially for field-related work Myself G. Senthilvadivu studying Ph.D in Department Of Vegetable Science, Horticultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore. During our course work we studied important Courses such as breeding for vegetable crops, biotechnology of horticultural crops which will pave way for our career opportunities in future. My thesis work is on Compatibility studies in brinjal with wild Solanum species for improving horticultural traits. As there is a special unit for brinjal grafting in TNAU orchard facilities such as controlled mist chamber for grafted plants and hardening unit is available readily to carry out my research work in proper time. Lab facilities with instruments such as soxhlet unit, rotary evaporator, simple microscope unit, gel electrophoresis unit, PCR are useful to carry out our biochemical and molecular analysis for our work. Student Alumni Myself  VaibhaoGurve completed Ph.D in Vegetable Science in HC & RI, TNAU, Department of Vegetable Science. My overall experience at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University to date has been amazing, and the college is having an amazing infrastructure and got second green campus award for its lush greenery. Your college has provided me with a number of opportunities to grow and explore my skills. The emphasis on sports along with education always helped me a lot. I have always found a positive and healthy environment and the professors are highly supportive. Most of my doubts were cleared after the classes get over.I am highly thankful to you for providing me with an opportunity to be a part of your college. It has added a number of values to my life. Quick Links Dean’s Desk Current Student Infrastructure Scholarship International Cell Language Lab Health centre Rules and Regulations Information to Parent Seed & Farms Women Grievance Redressal Grievance Redressal Photo Gallery Janhit Guarantee Digital India Vegetable Science UPCATET – 2024 Administration Board of Management The Statutes CSA University Dean Students Welfare Central Library Portfolio Columns Printing Press Nodal Cell ICAR Director Administrations and Monitoring Establishment And Administration Officer Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) General Info Vice Chancellor Mission & Mandate Security Office Course Program Offered by the University Agri Business Management Agricultural Biochemistry Agri Economics & Statistics Agriculture Extension Department Animal Husbandry & Dairying Crop Physiology Genetics & Plant Breeding Horticulture Plant Pathalogy Seed Science & Technology Soil Conservation & Water Management Soil Science & Agri Chemistry Human Development and Family Studies Clothing & Textile Food Science & Nutrition Family Resource Management Extension Education & Communication Management Agricultural Engineering & Technology, Etawah College of Forestry College of Horticulture College of Dairy Technology College of Fisheries Science & Research Centre College of Agriculture, Lakhimpur Kheri Diploma in Agriculture Journalism & Science Communication Director AES Projects/Schemes NAHEP-CAAST Kanpur NAHEP-CAAST Thrust Areas Achievments Regional Research Stations Patent Granted Director Ext Student Activities All Syllabus Form no. I-Viii for Ph.d. Scholars Ph.D. Scholars UPCATET Exam- 2024 Anti Ragging Anti Ragging Committee Demonstration/Module Kisan Gosthis M-Portal(Agro-Advisory) Agrimet(SMS) Vocational Training Farmers Fair Farmers Success Story Appellate Officer Public Information Officer Grievance Redressal System About Department Department Photo Achievements Course Offered Faculty Profile Description A research unit for the improvement of vegetable crops in Uttar Pradesh was established by State Government at Alambagh, Lucknow during 1951. After a short span of three years this research unit was shifted from Lucknow to Kalyanpur, Kanpur in 1954 under the supervision and administrative control of Late Dr. Y. R. Mehta, Horticulturist, U.P. Govt.. Subsequently in the year 1962, the vegetable research scheme was strengthened with the creation of a post of Economic Botanist (Vegetables). Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Dehi granted permission to start research work at CSAUA&T, Kalyanpur as a sub – centre under AICRP Vegetables w.e.f. 1971-72. In the beginning most of the vegetable crops like Brinjal, Pea, Tomato, Chilli, Okra, Cauliflower, French bean, Radish, Cucurbits, Onion and Garlic were the part of the programmes. Under AICRP (Vegetable crops), major emphasis was given on varietal improvement, standardization of improved production technologies and vegetable seed production programme. Government of India has also sanctioned a project on “Breeder Seed Production of Vegetable crops” Recognizing the importance role of this centre in vegetable seed production programme, ICAR sanctioned a project on vegetable breeder seed production to this university as a new centre during 2010-11under AICRP- NSP which later on merged with main project i.e. AICRP (V.C.). In the year 2008-09 a major breakthrough was witnessed as ICAR granted main centre status to Kalyanpur for doing research on onion and garlic under All India Network Research Project on Onion & Garlic and potato under AICRP on potato. Till today more than 55 high yielding varieties of different vegetable crops have been developed and released for general cultivation by State/Central Variety Release Committee. Besides this, more than seventy two different recommendations have been made on improved vegetable production and plant protection technologies for the benefit of farmers’ of the State. To popularize the cultivation of seed spices in the state as well as to achieve the aim of self-reliance in spices production at national level, quality seed production of high yielding varieties and the development programmes like technology transfer through FLDs, seminar/ workshops and farmers training are also being undertaken by the department with the financial assistance from Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut, Kerala. This vegetables research section was upgraded as department of Vegetable Science during 2002-03 and started giving degree in M.Sc. and Ph.D. (Agriculture) in Vegetable Science and this continued till 2011-12. After words from academic session 2016-17, admission of M.Sc. and Ph.D. students was again initiated and now the degree is being awarded as M.Sc. (Horticulture) Vegetable Science and Ph.D. (Horticulture) Vegetable Science under the college of Horticulture. Both farm and instructional facilities are available for undertaking the quality research and imparting quality education to the postgraduate students. This department has distinction to be identified as “Centre of Excellence on Vegetables” in the year 2018 by Department of Agricultural Education and Research, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh. In order to promote the use of green energy i.e. energy which does not pollute the environment and is renewable in nature, department of vegetable science has taken the lead in the university. During March 2021 online solar panel of 50 KW capacity has been installed on the roof of department’s building which has become now functional and started supplying solar energy. Besides this all the fields of vegetable research farm has been connected with underground irrigation pipeline in order to enhance the water use efficiency and minimize the water losses. To contribute significantly towards achieving the nutritional and livelihood security of India through the development of sustainable, economically viable and environmentally safe technologies of vegetables production. Imparting quality education to UG and  PG students on the fundamentals of Vegetable Science and latest technological interventions to enhance the vegetables production and productivity  Guiding and training postgraduate students and research scholars for their thesis  research work. Collection, evaluation, documentation and maintenance of different vegetable’s germplasm. Carry out basic and strategic research on vegetable for development of new varieties. Development of superior, disease and insect-pest resistant high yielding varieties/hybrid of major vegetable crops. Standardization and demonstration of advanced production and protection technologies. Production and distribution of high quality vegetable breeder seeds and planting materials. Dissemination and promotion of technologies for sustainable management of vegetable and their resources. List of high yielding vegetable varieties developed and released S. No. Crops Varieties/Hybrids 1. Brinjal Kalyanpur Type-3, Azad B-1, Azad B-2, Azad B-3, Azad Kranti   and  Azad Hybrid 2. Tomato Kalyanpur Angoorlata, Kalyanpur Type-1, Azad T-2, Azad T-3, Azad T-5, Azad T-6, Azad T-8, KTH-1(Hybrid)  and  KTH-2 (Hybrid) 3. Pea Azad P-1, Azad P-2,  Azad P-3, Azad P-4   and  Azad P-5 4. Okra Azad Bhindi -1, Azad Bhindi -2, Azad Bhindi -3 (Azad Krishna)-Red coloured Capsules  and  Azad Bhindi-4 (Azad Mohini) 5. Chilli Azad Mirch-1, Azad Achar Mirch-2, KCH-3 (Hybrid), 6. Sponge gourd Kalyanpur Hari Chikni, Azad Torai Chikni-1 And  Azad Torai -2 7. Bottle gourd Kalyanpur Long Green, Azad Harit,  Azad  Nutan   and  Azad Sankar Lauki-1 (Hybrid) 8. Bitter gourd Kalyanpur Baramasi(Long fruited)  and  Kalyan Sona 9. Pumpkin Azad Pumpkin-1 10. Cucumber Kalyanpur Green 11. Sem Type-2, Rajni, and  Azad Sem-1 12. Rajmah Azad Rajmah-1 13. Lobia 5269 14. Onion Kalyanpur Red Round 15. Radish Kalyanpur No.-1 16. Turmeric Azad Haldi-1 17. Colocasia Azad Arvi-1 18. Coriander Azad Dhania-1  and  Azad Dhania-2 19. Fennel Azad Saunf-1 20. Fenugreek Azad Methi-1 & Azad Methi-2 (Azad Arunima) 21. Ajwain Azad Ajwain -1 22. Nigella Azad Kalaunji -1 23. Zimikand Azad Suran-1 Technology developed and recommended:  A total number of 19 improved production and protection technologies have been developed and recommended for  its adoption  as per details enumerated below: S. No. Details of Technology 1. The maximum pod yield (69.68 q/ha) with C:B ratio (1.97) was registered with the application of vermicompost @ 5 t/ha + + + + in organic farming trial on cowpea. Hence, this treatment is recommended for organic cultivation of cowpea under Kalyanpur condition. (33rd Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IIVR, Varanasi during 21-24 May, 2015) 2. Application of vermicompost @ 2.5 t/ha + half recommended NPK through chemical fertilizers recorded significantly higher green pod yield (83.56 q/ha) of garden pea with B:C ratio of 3.07. Hence, it is recommended for cultivation under Agro-climatic Zone- IV. (34th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IARI, New Delhi during 10-13 May, 2016) 3. Maximum fruit yield as well as net return was recorded in cropping  sequence of okra (77.67 q/ha with C:B ratio 1: 2.52), tomato (227.40 q/ha with C:B ratio 1: 2.58) and cowpea (69.54 q/ha with C:B ratio of 1: 2.30) with the application of vermicompost @ 5 t/ha + + +   + . Hence, for the above cropping  sequence these organic inputs are recommended for the Agro-climatic Zone- IV. (34th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IARI, New Delhi during 10-13 May, 2016) 4. Maximum green leaves yield of Amaranths (172.63 q/ha) along with benefit cost ratio 2.86 was noticed with the application of vermicompost @ 5 t/ha + PSB + @ 5 kg/ha each. Hence, it is recommended for amaranth production under Agro-climatic Zone- IV. (34th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IARI, New Delhi during 10-13 May, 2016).   5. The organic package for coriander-radish sequence consists of growing coriander cv. and radish cv. with the application of 100 % recommended dose of nitrogen through vermicompost + IIHR microbial consortium @ 12.5 kg/ha was found suitable for realizing optimum yield and highest B:C ratio. Hence, it is recommended for agro-climatic condition of Zone- IV. (35th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IIHR, Bangalore during 24-27 June, 2017) 6. Based on three years experiment at Kanpur it was concluded that higher seed yield of Okra (15.69 q/ha) was obtained with the application of Azospirillum + Recommended dose of NPK treatment at Kalyanpur condition. (35th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at IIHR, Bangalore during 24-27 June, 2017) 7. In Okra cv. , pre-emergence application of pendimethalin @ 6ml/L + one hand weeding at 35 days after sowing was found suitable for maximum fruit yield (81.26 q/ha) with highest C:B ratio (2.48). Hence, it is recommended for weed control in the  agro-climatic condition of Zone IV. (36th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at RARI, Jaipur during 18-21 May, 2018) 8. Seed coating with carbendazim @ 2 g/kg seed + Imidacloprid @ 2ml/kg seed + micro nutrient mixture @ 20 g/kg seed in tomato cv. T-6 recorded the maximum seed germination (92%), and vigour under Kalyanpur condition. CD and CV of pooled data is 1.05 (at 5%) & 5.78. Hence, it is recommended for tomato.(36th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at RARI, Jaipur during 18-21 May, 2018) 9. Three hand weeding at 20, 40 and 60 days after sowing in vegetable pea cv. Azad Pea-3 recorded highest seed weight, seed yield (15.95 q/ha)and quality attributes with cost benefit ratio of 1:2.48 under Kanpur condition. (36th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at RARI, Jaipur during 18-21 May, 2018) 10. Integrated nutrient management package for French bean cv. Azad Rajmah-1 with the application of 75% NPK through inorganic source + 25% N through vermicompost was found suitable for realizing optimum green pod yield (77.08 q/ha) and highest B:C ratio (2.67). Hence, it is recommended for agro-climatic condition of Zone- IV. (37th Group Meeting of AICRP on Vegetable Crops held at TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu during 22-25 June, 2019) 11 Prophylactic spray (at the time of canopy closure) of mancozeb @ 0.25 % followed by cymoxanil + mancozeb @ 0.3% at the time of disease appearance and one more spray with mancozeb @ 0.25 % after 8-10 days of second spray is recommended for the management of potato late blight in Kanpur region of Uttar Pradesh. (Department of Agriculture/Horticulture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and AICRP (Potato) Kanpur Centre-2018-19. 12 Application of ZN @ 1.5 kg/ha in potato for Kanpur condition may be recommended (Department of Agriculture/Horticulture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and AICRP (Potato) Kanpur Centre-2016-17. 13 In Kanpur areas of Uttar Pradesh there is a serious problem of common scab and farmers are not following tuber seed treatment practice developed by ICAR-CPRI, Shimla for the management of common scab. Therefore, it was decided that Kanpur center will demonstrate recommended technology at farmers field (five FLDs) on management of common scab using tuber seed treatment with boric acid (3%) in nearby areas. (AICRP Center, Kanpur) 14 Metribuzin @ 0.75 kg/ha either as pre-emergence or as post–emergence at 10% plant emergence was equally effective and comparable to manual hand weeding to control the weeds in potato across the locations. Hence, application of metribuzin @ 0.75 kg/ha either as pre-emergence or as post–emergence at 10% plant emergence can be recommended for effective weed control in potato Kanpur (Department of Agriculture/Horticulture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and AICRP (Potato) Kanpur Centre. 15 Prophylactic spray of mancozeb @ 0.2%, followed by second spray of (fenamidone + mancoozeb) 0.3% after seven days  and a third spry with mancozeb @ 0.2% after 7 days of the second spray is recommended for the control of late blight in West Bengal and Eastern Uttar Pradesh under moderate disease pressure. (Department of Agriculture/Horticulture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and AICRP (Potato) Kanpur Centre. 16 Bio-fumigation by incorporating one month old Indian Mustard crop (Seed rate 5 kg/ha) just before the planting of potato crop is recommended for management of black scurf and common scab in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. (Department of Agriculture/Horticulture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and AICRP (Potato) Kanpur Center. 17 At Kanpur drenching of Fenamidone + Mancozeb @ 0.25% in the nursery may be recommended in Chilli variety G-4. 18 At Kalyanpur integrated management module comprising of seed treatment with Captan 50%wp (2g/kg) + drenching with fosetyl aI 80% wp @ 0.1% immediately after germination + spray with copper hydroxide 77%wp (2g/l) at 3-4 leaf stage in nursery and main field treatment (Seedling dip with 0.1% (Carbendazim 12%+ Mancozeb 63% WP) + spray with Acephate 75% WP @ 1.5 g/l on 10 days after transplanting + spray with Fipronil 5% SC@ 1.5 ml/l on 20 DAT +spray  with Copper hydroxide 77%WP (2.0g/l) on 25 DAT + spray  Imidacloprid 70% WG @ 2g/15L on 40 DAT + spray with Fenamidone 10% + Mancozeb 50% WDG (0.25) two to three times from 45 DAT at 10 days interval was found most effective in the management of tomato diseases damping off (5.8%), early blight (1.4%), mosaic (2.2%), Fusarim wilt (4.3%) with collar rot (1.7%) late blight (9.5%), early blight (8.6%), mosaic (5.4%), Fusarium wilt (5.5%), collar rot (4.4%) with BC ratio of 4.0 may be recommended. 19 At Kalyanpur spraying with mixture of ferrous Sulphate @ 0.2%, calcium nitrate@ 0.2% and boron @ 0.1%, gave maximum seed yield (122.45 kg/ha) with highest BC ratio (2.35) in Chilli var. Azad Mirch-1 Hence, it is recommended for Kanpur (zone-IV) conditions. Twenty Five students have been awarded with degree in M.Sc. (Horticulture) - Vegetable Science and 02 students with Ph.D. (Horticulture) - Vegetable Science. Students qualified in SRF/NET/ARS Examination: Name of the student Id. No. Degree Name of qualified examination Year Durgesh Kumar HR0-345/19 Ph.D. NET 2019 Virendra Kumar HR0-346/19 Ph.D. NET 2019 Arun Kr. Verma HR-0280/18 Ph.D. NET 2019 Mahendra Kr. Yadav HR-0288/18 Ph.D. NET 2018 Ravish Kumar HR-0281/18 Ph.D. NET 2018 Saurabh Dixit HR-0282/18 Ph.D. NET 2020 Satyendra Kumar  HR-0236/17 M.Sc. NET 2018 Banke Lal HR- 0234/17 Ph.D. NET 2018 Extension Activities: Display of vegetable varieties every year during University Kisan Mela, Flower show at Raj Bhawan, Lucknow and IIT Kanpur. FLD on vegetables and seed spices conducted every year at different villages of the adjoining districts. Farmers training organized in different locations under different running schemes of this section. District level seminars organized  under seed spices scheme. Advisory services to the farmer’s issued regularly on the important topics. S. No. Activities / Programmes undertaken Achievements (No.) (2015 to 2020)  1 Practicing Farmer &  Farm Women  training  organized 162 2 Rural Youth  training  organized    32 3 Radio Talks broadcast and T.V. shows telecast 102 4 Farmers Fair & Agriculture Exhibition Organized 16 5 Field days organized 178 6 Exposure visits arranged 22 7 FLDs/demonstrations were conducted 460 8 Sight Seeing  organized 58 9 Group discussion  organized 108 10 Farmers-Scientist interface organized 38 11 Participation as an expert or subject specialist  in Training, Goshthi, Conference, Field day, Seminar, Kisan Mela, Exposure visit etc. at various levels organized by line department and other agencies.    412 12 Farm advisory services at on and off campus  232  13 Newspaper coverage 238  Externally funded projects handled during last five years Title of the project Year Funding agency Achievement s Establishment of Potato Research Centre at Kalyanpur 2015-17 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   Infrastructures have been developed. Bio-efficacy on evaluation of poly-4 (polyhalite) in Onion for enhanced yield and potassium use efficiency 2018-19 Sirius Minerals Plc, North Yorkshire, U.K. Modules for potassium nutrient application in onion have been developed.    Participatory Vegetable Seed Production to Enhance Vegetable Production in U.P. 2015-2018 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   5000 quintal of foundation quality seed of different vegetables was produced. Organic farming technology dissemination and diffusion on vegetable growers fields 2017-2020 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   300 vermi production units were established. Establishment and popularization of improved varieties /hybrids of vegetable and their agro techniques to enhance vegetable production in U.P. 2017-2018 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   Farmers promotional programmes were organized for the purpose. Strengthening of vegetable research station, Kalyanpur, Kanpur 2017-2019 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   Infrastructures have been established. Centre of Advanced Agricultural Science & Technology on Nutritional Crops 2017-2020 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   Renovation work completed and research & HRD programmes are going on. Establishment of Centre of Excellence for Vegetables 2017-2020 RKVY, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of U.P.   Seedling rising and R&D programme is going on. The Vegetable section, Kalyanpur, has been the premier vegetable research  station of the state and has contributed enormously to the welfare of vegetable  growers. Presently research work on most of the vegetable  crops is being carried out by the competent faculties  with the support  of All India Coordinated Research Project and All India Network Research Project, DASD and non-plan grants. This research section on vegetables was upgraded as department of Vegetable Science during 2002-03 and started giving degree in M.Sc. and Ph.D. (Agriculture) in Vegetable Science and this continued till 2011-12. After words from academic session 2016-17, admission of M.Sc. and Ph.D. students was again initiated and now the degree is being awarded as M.Sc. (Horticulture) Vegetable Science and Ph.D. (Horticulture) Vegetable Science under the college of Horticulture. Both farm and instructional facilities are available for undertaking the quality research and imparting quality education to the postgraduate students. In addition to practical’s, hands on training are also provided to students for the protective cultivation of Vegetables in poly houses and the storage of Onion and Garlic.    This department has distinction to be identified as “Centre of Excellence on Vegetables” in the year 2018 by  DARE, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh. In order to promote the use of green energy i.e. energy which does not pollute the environment and is renewable in nature, department of vegetable science has taken the lead in the university. During March 2021 online solar panel of 50 KW capacity has been installed on the roof of department’s building which has become now functional and started supplying solar energy. Besides this all the fields of vegetable research farm has been connected with underground irrigation pipeline in order to enhance the water use efficiency and minimize the water losses. Details of farm facilities A labeled and connected with roads   24 ha. Land area 15.6 ha cultivated Land 1.36 ha nursery & Garden 1.0 ha Polyhouse 02 Tube bell (15HP) Two Cultivator One Rotavetor Threshing Floor- 14 m radius Underground irrigation pipeline Solar lamps Details of workshop facilities Details of instructional facilities. Poly house- 04 units (440 sq. meter each)  Net house- 01 unit (20 X 13.5 meter)   Go down- 01 (13 X 8.5 meter) Pre-cool chamber-01 unit  (200 sq. meter) Hardening chamber – 01 unit  (200 sq. meter) Onion garlic storage- 01 unit (10.5 X 4.5 meter)  Vermi-compost production unit Laboratory and classroom  - 01 each (6.50 X 8.30 meter) Conference room – 01 unit List of equipment’s in laboratories  Thermo hygrograph Kjeldhal distillation set Spectrophotometer Flame photometer Digital balance Plastic crates Generator set                     Auto clean machine          Hot Plate               Glass ware dryer   Mechanical shaker             Electronic balance             pH meter                    Laminar air flow                Air purifier Microscope                        Poly house- (440 sq. meter each) Net house- (20 X 13.5 meter) Go down/store room Hardening chamber (200 sq. meter) Pre-cool chamber (200 sq. meter) Onion garlic storage-  (10.5 X 4.5 meter) Vermi-compost production unit 50 KW. Online solar system Conference room Laboratory and classroom 50 KW. Online solar system Insect proof net house Poly house with fan pad system Naturally Ventilated Polyhouse (Soil less media) Underground irrigation pipeline General view Teaching Activities The department offers various undergraduate and postgraduate courses of vegetable science. The M.Sc. and Ph.D. students of the department usually study minor in Genetics and Plant Breeding, Entomology and Seed science & Technology in addition to Agricultural Statistics and Economics as supporting ones. The department has adopted course curricula recommended by 5th ICAR Deans’ Committee at UG level from 2016-17 academic session, while the course curricula for postgraduate degree are as per the recommendations of National Core Group. About 8-10 students in M. Sc. programme and 4-6 students in Ph.D. programme are being admitted through Combined Agriculture and Technology Entrance Tests (CATET) every year including  ICAR quota (NTS / JRF/ SRF) and foreign students nomination. Course No. Course title Credit hours VSC-221 Spices and condiments 3 VSC-222 Precision farming and protected cultivation 3 VSC-311 Breeding of vegetable, tuber and spices  3 VSC-312 Potato and tuber crops 2 VSC-321 Seed production of vegetable, tuber & spices 3 HEL-422 Protected cultivation of high value horticultural crops 10(0+10) HOR-211 Production technology  of vegetable and spices 2 ELP-427 Organic crop production technology 10(0+10) VGS 501 Production technology of cool season vegetable crops  3(2+1) VGS 503 Breeding of Vegetables 3(2+1) VGS 512 Experimental design 3(2+1)  VGS-502 Production Tech. of warm Season Vegetable Crops 3(2+1) VGS-504 Growth and Development of Vegetable Crops 3(2+1) VGS-505 Seed Production Tech. of Vegetable Crops 3(2+1) VGS-507 Production Tech. of Under Exploited Vegetable Crops 2(1+1) VGS - 508 Organic Vegetable Production Technology 2(1+1) VGS-509 Fundamentals of Processing of Vegetables 2(1+1) VGS-506 Breeding  of Vegetables 3(2+1) VGS-591 Master seminar 1(1+0) VGS-599 Master research 20 GPB-503 Principals of plant breeding 3(2+1) SST-507 Seed quality testing 3(2+1) ENT-510 Principal of pest management Vegetable Crops 2(1+1)   Total credit hours 56 VGS-601 Advances in Vegetable Production 3(2+1) VGS-602 Advances in breeding of Vegetable  3(2+1) VGS-603 Protected Cultivation of Vegetable Crops 2(1+1) VGS-604 Biotechnology of vegetable crops 3(2+1) VGS-605 Seed Production Tech. of Vegetable Crops 3(2+1) VGS-606 Production Technology of Under-exploited Veg. Crops 2(1+1) VGS-691 Seminar 1 VGS-699 Ph.D. Research work 45 ENT-607 Advances in biological control 2(1+1) ENT-609 Plant nematode relationship 2(1+1) GPB-603 Hetrosis Breeding 3(2+1) AES-605 Agriculture statistics 3(2+1) GPB-606 Plant genetic resource 2(1+1) AES-602 Agriculture production economics 3(2+1)   Name : Dr. Ram Batuk Singh Date of Birth : 15.01.1966 Designation : Assoc. Professor College Department : College / Department Vegetable Science, Kalyanpur Contact Info Office Info Personal Info Mobile: 9415869700 Email : Email : [email protected] Mob : 9415869700 Email : [email protected] Name : Dr. D.P. Singh Date of Birth : 12-04-1964 Designation : Sr. Scientist (Veg. Seeds) & Head College Department : Vegetable Section, Kalyanpur Contact Info Office Info Personal Info Phone : 0512-2534158 Mobile: : 9415070668 Phone : 0512-2540305 Mobile:7007059544 Email :[email protected] Name : Dr. RAJIV Date of Birth : 15-07-1969 Designation : Vegetable Agronomist CollegeDepartment : College of Agriculture Department of Vegetable Science Contact Info Office Info Personal Info Phone : – Mobile: : – Email : : – Phone : – Mobile: 08765600151 Email : [email protected] Name : Dr. SANJIVE KUMAR SINGH Date of Birth : 25-12-1966 Designation : Assistant Professor CollegeDepartment : College of Horticulture Department of Vegetable Science Contact Info Office Info Personal Info Phone : Mobile: : Email : Phone : 0512-2575324 Mobile: 09450937817 Email :[email protected] Organization and Staff Position  : S.N. Name Designation Photo 1. Dr. P.K Singh Professor   2. Dr. D.P. Singh Associate Professor   4. Dr. P.K.Tiwari Assistant Professor   5. Dr. I.N.Shukla Assistant Professor   6. Dr. Sanjeev Kr. Singh Assistant Professor   7. Dr. Ramesh Singh Virologist 8. Dr. Rajiv Agronomist 9. Sri. U.C. Mishra Agronomist   S. No.> Technical staff 1. Dr.V.K.Yadav Staff 2. Sri. N.S. Kushwaha Staff 3. Sri. S.D. Dutta Statistician University Act Statutes & Regulations Alumni Cell Natural Farming Other Info. Extramural Lecture All categories Political Science Master’s thesis prize 2024: the nominees The thesis is a major milestone for master students graduating in Political Science. It demonstrates their ability to conduct research independently and to provide a thorough, objective and sound analysis. That requires instruction, discussion, thinking and hard work. Lots of it. In some cases this results in top notch, publication-worthy tractates eligible for the prestigious Political Science master’s thesis award. For 2023-2024, the jury is considering seven nominations, covering a broad range of topics—from campaign spending to African Regional Economic Communities. On 11 October 2024 we will know who will be added to our Hall of Fame. The jury, consisting of Corinna Jentzsch, Tom Theuns and Yuan Yi Zhu, is currently examining the following theses. The winner will be announced during the master’s graduation ceremony on 11 October 2024 in the Academy Building in Leiden. The shortlist Ismail Sidqui, The influence of African Regional Economic Communities (RECs) on coup occurrence: An analysis of the Eastern African Community (EAC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) (supervised by: Rutger Hagen and Femke Bakker) Tillman Iwersen, Not Just a Numbers Game: The Effects of Opposition Fragmentation and Polarisation in 19 Established Democracies (supervisor: Ingrid van Biezen; second reader: Michael Meffert) Ruben Geertman, Squabbling on ethnic lines: A quantitative analysis of the implications of ethnic recognition for peace (supervisor: Maria Spirova; second reader: Vasiliki Tsagkroni) Eric Zwarthoed, Estimating the effect of campaign spending of political parties in Western Europe: A case study of the Netherlands from 1998 to 2021 (supervisor: Simon Otjes; second reader: Cynthia van Vonno) Nina Schmal, Economic Development Aid and Conflict Intensity in Minor Civil Conflicts (supervisor: Christina Toenshoff; second Reader: Stefan Ćetković) Erik Sjoers, Reuring in de raad (supervisor: Peter Castenmiller; second reader: Tim Mickler) Labëri Leci, The Nexus of Repression, Resistance and Identity in Kosovo, 1981-1998 (supervisor: Ivan Bakalov; second reader: Francesco Ragazzi) political science political science msc thesis prize thesis prize 292 IMAGES Vegetable Science Multiple Choice Questions and Answers Submissions Trends of Vegetable Science B.Sc., M.Sc., JRF, SRF, IARI, PH.D., ARS NET ACF, ARO, AHO, BHU, SAU ORGANIC World Basic Concepts Of Vegetable Science: Buy Basic Concepts Of Vegetable Science Online at Low Price Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Compostion, Storage, a 9780367400569 VIDEO Organic Weed Control Techniques in Vegetable Production A student's perspective: What is the MSc Thesis process like? Papaya Peeling Machine Research and Development in Plant Science Thesis Writing Three minute Thesis Competition 2018: Andrea Vassoi COMMENTS 1626 PDFs Vegetable Science is the study of various plants that produce vegetables, including genetics, growth, and development. | Explore the latest full-text research PDFs, articles, conference papers ... Observing Changes in Vegetable Production through Alternative Observing Changes in Vegetable Production through Alternative Agricultural Practices. Austin Grey Livingston. Missouri State University, [email protected]. As with any intellectual project, the content and views expressed in this thesis may be considered objectionable by some readers. However, this student-scholar's work ... Vegetable Science The journal 'Vegetable Science' covers all aspects of vegetable research & development. Journal title : Vegetable Science. Frequency : 2 issues per year. NAAS Score : 5.54. Print ISSN : 0970-6585. Online ISSN : 2455-7552. Publisher : Indian Society of Vegetable Science (ISVS) Language : English. Advances in research on the carrot, an important root vegetable in the Carrots (Daucus carota L.), among the most important root vegetables in the Apiaceae family, are cultivated worldwide. The storage root is widely utilized due to its richness in carotenoids ... PDF Economic Efficiency and Marketing performance of Vegetable Production This thesis is a summary of the main results from four interrelated studies. The first two articles are devoted to the analysis of the production performances of mixed-crop farming and vegetables production whereas the remaining two articles are devoted towards market performance assessments of vegetables. The thesis is organized as follows. PDF A thesis submitted for the degree of Masters of Agricultural Science improving yields and enhancing dietary zinc and selenium intake in the zambian population through agronomic biofortification of maize and wheat. Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a ... Ms. Kumari has awarded with Best Poster, Oral Presentation Awards (2018), Best Article Award (2018) and Best Thesis Award (2018) for her M.Sc. Research work by the Society for Agriculture Innovation & Development, Ranchi (Jharkhand) & Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna (Bihar) in National Conference on Livelihood and Food Security (LFS ... PDF THESIS ORGANIC FERTILIZER COMPARISON ON KALE (Brassica spp.) VARIETAL Thesis.docx. THESIS. ORGANIC FERTILIZER COMPARISON ON KALE (Brassica spp.) VARIETAL GROWTH. AND NUTRIENT CONTENT. Submitted by. Natalie Yoder. Department of Horticulture. In partial fulfillment of the requirements. For the Degree of Master of Science. Horticulturae Organic farming is a holistic production management system that promotes and enhances agroecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and consequently, it is an efficient and promising approach for sustainable agriculture within a circular and green economy. There has been a rise in the consumption of organic vegetables in the last years because of ... Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a ... Dr. Shashank Shekhar Solankey is presently working as Assistant Professor-cum-Jr. Scientist (Vegetable Science) at Agricultural Research Institute, Patna (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, India).He has completed his Master's Degree in Vegetable Science from Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya (India) in 2006 and Doctorate in ... Grafting in Vegetable Crops: A Great Technique for Agriculture Grafting is a tool normally used in vegetable crops to improve production. Grafting consists of the use of a vigorous plant to replace the root system of a. cultivar of economic interest but that ... A review of the impact of preparation and cooking on the nutritional Introduction. The nutritional quality provided by vegetables and legumes consumption has been intensely reviewed (Block et al., 1992, He et al., 2007, Tiwari and Cummins, 2013).Legumes and vegetables are rich sources of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, antioxidants, fiber and water, as well as being excellent sources of β-carotene (provitamin A), thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin ... Quality improvement and fermentation control in vegetables Fermentations belong to the oldest methods of preserving plant materials while retaining their nutritive value. As can be seen from Table 22.1, fermentation of fruits and vegetables may be effected by various groups of microorganisms.However, it is remarkable that in Europe and America preferentially lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts are associated with vegetable fermentations, whereas in ... PDF A Revew of Freeze Drying and Its Impact on Fruits and Vegetables fruits and vegetables. Market research have shown that there is an increasing acceptance and liking for crispy dried vegetable and fruit snacks, indicating a growing consumption trend for freeze-dried products (Mintel). The growing intake is likely due to the dynamic contrast between the texture and mouthfeel of FD and fresh fruits, heightening the (PDF) Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Growth, Yield Cucumber is thought to be one of the oldest vegetable crops. A field experiment was conducted at India, during the rabi season of 2016-17, to study the effect of different organic and inorganic ... Predictors Of Fruit And Vegetable Intake Among University Students H5 Age predicts fruit and vegetable intake. H6 Year in school predicts fruit and vegetable intake. H1, that gender predicts fruit and vegetable intake, was accepted, females were more. likely to report consuming three or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day (p<0.001). Advances in research on the carrot, an important root vegetable in the Abstract. Carrots (Daucus carota L.), among the most important root vegetables in the Apiaceae family, are cultivated worldwide. The storage root is widely utilized due to its richness in carotenoids, anthocyanins, dietary fiber, vitamins and other nutrients. Carrot extracts, which serve as sources of antioxidants, have important functions in ... Vegetable Science "Vegetable Science" is flagship Journal of the Indian Society of Vegetable Science. Original researches in the field of breeding, physiology, ecology, production, management, seed technology, genomics molecular breeding, plant genetic resources, disease and pest management, marketing, post harvest etc are peer reviewed and published in this ... Fruits, vegetables, and health: A comprehensive narrative, umbrella Fruit and vegetables (F&V) have been a cornerstone of healthy dietary recommendations; the 2015-2020 U.S. Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that F&V constitute one-half of the plate at each meal. ... Fruits, vegetables, and health: A comprehensive narrative, umbrella review of the science and recommendations for enhanced public policy ... Ph.D (Hort) in Vegetable science Modern Vegetable Science deals with improved production technologies, breedimg, physiology, biochemistry, crop protection and other allied fields to impart specialized technologies in vegetables called Vegetable Science. ... (CBCS) with a total credit load of 40 credits and 30 credits are exclusively earmarked for their Thesis Research. PDF Examples of thesis topics (2015) BSc thesis (18 ECTS) for a part of an experiment which is already running MSc‐thesis: 36 ECTS Type of work: Climate chamber experiments with potato. LED lighting. Measurements: determination tuberisation and flowering time (macroscopic), plant characteristics (leaf area, PDF Study of M. Sc. Theses in Vegetable Science department at KNK College S. No. Total Theses of all subjects Theses of Vegetable Science Department % 1 135 25 18.51 ... Ph.D. Thesis, 2012. 4. Sharma, Ramnivas and others. A New Concept of Indian Doctoral Dissertations. Granthalaya Vigyan, 2012; 43:26-35. 5. Sharma, Ramnivas and others. Electronic Thesis and Dissertations: Better Concept for Present to Future. Vegetable Science : : Chandrashekhar Azad University of Agriculture and This vegetables research section was upgraded as department of Vegetable Science during 2002-03 and started giving degree in M.Sc. and Ph.D. (Agriculture) in Vegetable Science and this continued till 2011-12. ... Guiding and training postgraduate students and research scholars for their thesis research work. Collection, evaluation ... Political Science Master's thesis prize 2024: the nominees In some cases this results in top notch, publication-worthy tractates eligible for the prestigious Political Science master's thesis award. For 2023-2024, the jury is considering seven nominations, covering a broad range of topics—from campaign spending to African Regional Economic Communities. On 11 October 2024 we will know who will be ... essay homework paper phd project resume review study thesis