homework in primary

Is Homework Good for Kids? Here’s What the Research Says

A s kids return to school, debate is heating up once again over how they should spend their time after they leave the classroom for the day.

The no-homework policy of a second-grade teacher in Texas went viral last week , earning praise from parents across the country who lament the heavy workload often assigned to young students. Brandy Young told parents she would not formally assign any homework this year, asking students instead to eat dinner with their families, play outside and go to bed early.

But the question of how much work children should be doing outside of school remains controversial, and plenty of parents take issue with no-homework policies, worried their kids are losing a potential academic advantage. Here’s what you need to know:

For decades, the homework standard has been a “10-minute rule,” which recommends a daily maximum of 10 minutes of homework per grade level. Second graders, for example, should do about 20 minutes of homework each night. High school seniors should complete about two hours of homework each night. The National PTA and the National Education Association both support that guideline.

But some schools have begun to give their youngest students a break. A Massachusetts elementary school has announced a no-homework pilot program for the coming school year, lengthening the school day by two hours to provide more in-class instruction. “We really want kids to go home at 4 o’clock, tired. We want their brain to be tired,” Kelly Elementary School Principal Jackie Glasheen said in an interview with a local TV station . “We want them to enjoy their families. We want them to go to soccer practice or football practice, and we want them to go to bed. And that’s it.”

A New York City public elementary school implemented a similar policy last year, eliminating traditional homework assignments in favor of family time. The change was quickly met with outrage from some parents, though it earned support from other education leaders.

New solutions and approaches to homework differ by community, and these local debates are complicated by the fact that even education experts disagree about what’s best for kids.

The research

The most comprehensive research on homework to date comes from a 2006 meta-analysis by Duke University psychology professor Harris Cooper, who found evidence of a positive correlation between homework and student achievement, meaning students who did homework performed better in school. The correlation was stronger for older students—in seventh through 12th grade—than for those in younger grades, for whom there was a weak relationship between homework and performance.

Cooper’s analysis focused on how homework impacts academic achievement—test scores, for example. His report noted that homework is also thought to improve study habits, attitudes toward school, self-discipline, inquisitiveness and independent problem solving skills. On the other hand, some studies he examined showed that homework can cause physical and emotional fatigue, fuel negative attitudes about learning and limit leisure time for children. At the end of his analysis, Cooper recommended further study of such potential effects of homework.

Despite the weak correlation between homework and performance for young children, Cooper argues that a small amount of homework is useful for all students. Second-graders should not be doing two hours of homework each night, he said, but they also shouldn’t be doing no homework.

Not all education experts agree entirely with Cooper’s assessment.

Cathy Vatterott, an education professor at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, supports the “10-minute rule” as a maximum, but she thinks there is not sufficient proof that homework is helpful for students in elementary school.

“Correlation is not causation,” she said. “Does homework cause achievement, or do high achievers do more homework?”

Vatterott, the author of Rethinking Homework: Best Practices That Support Diverse Needs , thinks there should be more emphasis on improving the quality of homework tasks, and she supports efforts to eliminate homework for younger kids.

“I have no concerns about students not starting homework until fourth grade or fifth grade,” she said, noting that while the debate over homework will undoubtedly continue, she has noticed a trend toward limiting, if not eliminating, homework in elementary school.

The issue has been debated for decades. A TIME cover in 1999 read: “Too much homework! How it’s hurting our kids, and what parents should do about it.” The accompanying story noted that the launch of Sputnik in 1957 led to a push for better math and science education in the U.S. The ensuing pressure to be competitive on a global scale, plus the increasingly demanding college admissions process, fueled the practice of assigning homework.

“The complaints are cyclical, and we’re in the part of the cycle now where the concern is for too much,” Cooper said. “You can go back to the 1970s, when you’ll find there were concerns that there was too little, when we were concerned about our global competitiveness.”

Cooper acknowledged that some students really are bringing home too much homework, and their parents are right to be concerned.

“A good way to think about homework is the way you think about medications or dietary supplements,” he said. “If you take too little, they’ll have no effect. If you take too much, they can kill you. If you take the right amount, you’ll get better.”

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Education researcher calls for primary schools to have 'courage' to rethink homework

By Georgia Loney

ABC North Qld

Topic: Primary Education

Estelle Trueman says her daughters Perry and Bronte have benefited from no homework. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

When Estelle Trueman was growing up, homework was par for the course.

But now her two daughters are in primary school at Townsville in north Queensland, homework isn't mentioned.

"There's no pressure," Ms Trueman said.

"If we get home and want to prepare a meal together, or spend time together outside before bed, we can, and don't have to hope that we won't get in trouble tomorrow because we haven't done the reader."

John Hattie says homework is of little benefit in primary school. ( Supplied: University of Melbourne )

Across Australia, there's anecdotal evidence a growing number of primary schools have introduced no – or low – homework policies since the COVID-19 pandemic, according to University of Melbourne Emeritus Professor of Education John Hattie.

Professor Hattie said while there was some evidence homework benefited high-school students, there was no need for it in primary schools.

"The evidence is pretty clear that homework in primary school has a very low to zero effect," he said.

In a bid to modernise the education system, Poland last month scrapped homework for students in years one to three and made it optional for students in years four to eight .

Professor Hattie said Poland's move sent an important message, but it would take a "brave" politician to rattle the cage in Australia because of widespread views among parents here.

"There are parents who think homework is critical and essential for their children's future, which is not true," he said.

Homework out, reading in

In Townsville in north Queensland, Belgian Gardens State School has scrapped compulsory homework in favour of reading, practice, and play.

Belgian Gardens State School has an optional homework policy. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

"[Worksheet saturation] does not foster parent engagement, neglects the individual needs of students and in some cases leads to drawbacks including disengagement and frustration," principal Ryan Pedley said.

Students were given the option to undertake "practice" or "study habits" at home.

Mr Pedley said parents were highly engaged, through regular information sessions, about what was being taught at school. 

St Benedict's says at-home reading is required. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

St Benedict's Catholic School in the city's west is similarly taking a minimalist approach.

"We couldn't really see the benefits for doing homework … but we do require our students to be reading at home each night," assistant principal Aleesha Rockemar said.

"It [homework] can become a nightmare for families to get done."

Aleesha Rockemer says a no-homework approach reduces stress on students and families. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

For 10-year-old Keira Warren, it was a pleasant surprise when she transferred to the school this year.

"I was very relieved, I hated having to go home and do more work," she said.

"I didn't like having to either get in trouble because I didn't go to sports, or get in trouble because I didn't do homework."

Keira Warren says having no homework was a surprise when she moved to Townsville. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

What are the rules on homework?

In Queensland, there is no one-size-fits all approach; it's up to each school principal to decide their homework rule book.

The Department of Education said it did not collect data on the state's 1,264 public schools' policies.

Instead, it stipulated principals needed to determine what worked for their individual school communities and to ensure any homework was meaningful.

"Schools work collaboratively with students and families to make sure to allow sufficient time for family, recreation and, community and cultural values," a department spokesperson said.

Brisbane Catholic Education, which oversees 146 schools across south-east Queensland, said it did not have a mandated homework policy, but any homework should complement students' learning and wellbeing.

Pros and cons

Professor Hattie has been researching teaching and student learning since the 1970s.

His latest publication in 2023 analysed more than 130,000 studies worldwide on what helps students learn. 

Professor Hattie said the research found homework in primary school – if at all — should be kept short, review what had already been learned at school and not require parental surveillance.

"Don't get [children] to do a project unless you want to see what the parents contribute," he said.

"You've got to seriously question why you need homework at all. I want to give some courage to [primary] schools to drop it, if parents don't get upset.

"There's no need for it in primary school."

Amanda Hoffensetz says homework is an under-researched topic. ( Supplied: James Cook University )

Lecturer in early childhood education Amanda Hoffensetz, from James Cook University, said homework was a difficult topic to research and there were too many variables for conclusive evidence.

"Schools vary greatly in quality, quantity, and the amount of support that children are getting at home," she said.

Scott Wiseman says traditional homework might work best for some families. ( ABC Radio Brisbane: Kenji Sato )

For Scott Wiseman, the chief executive of P&Cs Qld, the peak body representing state school parents and communities, homework had traditionally played an important role in helping parents engage in their child's learning.

"Everyone learns differently and for some kids, doing the sight words or the fact sheets may actually be really important to reinforce their schoolwork," he said.

"It needs to be a consultation process between the school and parents and the community as to how they want education to work in that particular school."

Family impacts

At Townsville's Marian Catholic School, principal Kylie Helmore said changing its homework policy in 2023 had resulted in more student engagement in class and less stress on working families.

Kylie Helmore says the school has drastically changed its approach to homework. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

"We're not getting the reports that 'my child is refusing to do anything'," Ms Helmore said.

But reading at home is still required and senior students must complete a passion project each term.

For mum-of-two Estelle Trueman, home life was more manageable without the burden of homework.

"Our kids are only little once," she said.

Estelle Trueman says a flexible approach is needed to homework in primary school. ( ABC News: Georgia Loney )

Does homework really work?

by: Leslie Crawford | Updated: December 12, 2023

Print article

You know the drill. It’s 10:15 p.m., and the cardboard-and-toothpick Golden Gate Bridge is collapsing. The pages of polynomials have been abandoned. The paper on the Battle of Waterloo seems to have frozen in time with Napoleon lingering eternally over his breakfast at Le Caillou. Then come the tears and tantrums — while we parents wonder, Does the gain merit all this pain? Is this just too much homework?

However the drama unfolds night after night, year after year, most parents hold on to the hope that homework (after soccer games, dinner, flute practice, and, oh yes, that childhood pastime of yore known as playing) advances their children academically.

But what does homework really do for kids? Is the forest’s worth of book reports and math and spelling sheets the average American student completes in their 12 years of primary schooling making a difference? Or is it just busywork?

Homework haterz

Whether or not homework helps, or even hurts, depends on who you ask. If you ask my 12-year-old son, Sam, he’ll say, “Homework doesn’t help anything. It makes kids stressed-out and tired and makes them hate school more.”

Nothing more than common kid bellyaching?

Maybe, but in the fractious field of homework studies, it’s worth noting that Sam’s sentiments nicely synopsize one side of the ivory tower debate. Books like The End of Homework , The Homework Myth , and The Case Against Homework the film Race to Nowhere , and the anguished parent essay “ My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me ” make the case that homework, by taking away precious family time and putting kids under unneeded pressure, is an ineffective way to help children become better learners and thinkers.

One Canadian couple took their homework apostasy all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. After arguing that there was no evidence that it improved academic performance, they won a ruling that exempted their two children from all homework.

So what’s the real relationship between homework and academic achievement?

How much is too much?

To answer this question, researchers have been doing their homework on homework, conducting and examining hundreds of studies. Chris Drew Ph.D., founder and editor at The Helpful Professor recently compiled multiple statistics revealing the folly of today’s after-school busy work. Does any of the data he listed below ring true for you?

• 45 percent of parents think homework is too easy for their child, primarily because it is geared to the lowest standard under the Common Core State Standards .

• 74 percent of students say homework is a source of stress , defined as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss, and stomach problems.

• Students in high-performing high schools spend an average of 3.1 hours a night on homework , even though 1 to 2 hours is the optimal duration, according to a peer-reviewed study .

Not included in the list above is the fact many kids have to abandon activities they love — like sports and clubs — because homework deprives them of the needed time to enjoy themselves with other pursuits.

Conversely, The Helpful Professor does list a few pros of homework, noting it teaches discipline and time management, and helps parents know what’s being taught in the class.

The oft-bandied rule on homework quantity — 10 minutes a night per grade (starting from between 10 to 20 minutes in first grade) — is listed on the National Education Association’s website and the National Parent Teacher Association’s website , but few schools follow this rule.

Do you think your child is doing excessive homework? Harris Cooper Ph.D., author of a meta-study on homework , recommends talking with the teacher. “Often there is a miscommunication about the goals of homework assignments,” he says. “What appears to be problematic for kids, why they are doing an assignment, can be cleared up with a conversation.” Also, Cooper suggests taking a careful look at how your child is doing the assignments. It may seem like they’re taking two hours, but maybe your child is wandering off frequently to get a snack or getting distracted.

Less is often more

If your child is dutifully doing their work but still burning the midnight oil, it’s worth intervening to make sure your child gets enough sleep. A 2012 study of 535 high school students found that proper sleep may be far more essential to brain and body development.

For elementary school-age children, Cooper’s research at Duke University shows there is no measurable academic advantage to homework. For middle-schoolers, Cooper found there is a direct correlation between homework and achievement if assignments last between one to two hours per night. After two hours, however, achievement doesn’t improve. For high schoolers, Cooper’s research suggests that two hours per night is optimal. If teens have more than two hours of homework a night, their academic success flatlines. But less is not better. The average high school student doing homework outperformed 69 percent of the students in a class with no homework.

Many schools are starting to act on this research. A Florida superintendent abolished homework in her 42,000 student district, replacing it with 20 minutes of nightly reading. She attributed her decision to “ solid research about what works best in improving academic achievement in students .”

More family time

A 2020 survey by Crayola Experience reports 82 percent of children complain they don’t have enough quality time with their parents. Homework deserves much of the blame. “Kids should have a chance to just be kids and do things they enjoy, particularly after spending six hours a day in school,” says Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth . “It’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.”

By far, the best replacement for homework — for both parents and children — is bonding, relaxing time together.

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Homework’s implications for the well-being of primary school pupils—perceptions of children, parents, and teachers.

1. Introduction

1.1. homework—perspectives of students, teachers, and parents, 1.2. homework practices in primary education in romania, 1.3. present study, 2. methodology, 2.1. design, data collection methods, and procedures, 2.2. participants, 2.3. data analysis, 3. research findings, 3.1. homework not liked by students.

3.2. Students’ Negative Reactions When Doing Homework

3.3. Homework That Makes Children Feel Good

3.4. Homework Students Like

3.5. Checking and Assessing Homework

3.6. Suggestions for Improving Educational Practices Regarding Homework

4. Discussions

5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional reviewer board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Negru, I.; Sava, S. Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers. Educ. Sci. 2023 , 13 , 996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

Negru I, Sava S. Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers. Education Sciences . 2023; 13(10):996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

Negru, Iasmina, and Simona Sava. 2023. "Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers" Education Sciences 13, no. 10: 996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

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The beginner's guide to primary-school homework

What’s the point of homework?

For many families, homework is a nightly battle, but primary schools set it for a variety of reasons. ‘It helps to consolidate the skills that are being taught at school, and provides children with additional revision opportunities,’ explains head teacher Steph Matthews of St Paul’s CofE School, Gloucester .

‘It also gives children an opportunity to explore learning in an unstructured setting, encouraging them to be independent and follow their own lines of enquiry.’ In addition, homework creates a partnership between school and family, giving parents an insight into what their child is learning.

How much homework should my child get in primary school?

In the past, the Department for Education advised that Key Stage 1 children should do an hour of homework each week, rising to half an hour per night in Key Stage 2. This advice was scrapped in 2012, giving schools more freedom, but many still follow the old guidelines.

In Reception , formal homework is rarely set. However, children are likely to bring home books to share with the family, first reading books, and/or keywords to learn.

In Years 1 and 2 , children are likely to have one or two tasks per week. This could be literacy or numeracy worksheets (for example an exercise where children have to compare the weights of different household items), a short piece of writing (such as a recount of a school trip) or work relating to the class topic (find out five facts about the Great Fire of London ).

In Years 3 and 4 , most schools set two homework activities each week: typically, one literacy (such as a worksheet on collective nouns, or a book review ) and one numeracy (a worksheet on bar charts).

In Years 5 and 6 , children may have two or three pieces of homework each week. ‘The amount begins to increase to prepare children for SATs and the transition to secondary school,’ says Steph. These activities might include maths worksheets, researching a topic, book reviews and grammar exercises.

Alongside formal homework tasks, most children bring home reading scheme books from Reception onwards, with weekly spellings and times tables from Year 1 or 2.

Learning logs and homework challenges

Not all schools rely on handing out worksheets. Learning logs or challenges are becoming more popular: children are given a folder of suggested activities – from writing a poem to building a model castle – and must choose a certain number to complete throughout the term.

Other schools ensure that homework ties in with the current class topic. ‘We have a themed approach, and set homework activities that give opportunities to explore the topic in a fun way, for example, designing a method of transport that Phileas Fogg could use to travel the world,’ explains Steph.  

Modern homework methods

Unsurprisingly, technology is playing an increasingly important part in homework. Some schools use online reading schemes such as Bug Club , where teachers allocate e-books of the appropriate level, or subscription services like SAM Learning  to set cross-curricular tasks.

A growing number also set homework electronically , with children logging into the school website to download their task.

What if the homework is too much – or too hard?

If you feel your child is overloaded with homework, speak to the teacher. ‘Forcing children to complete homework is counterproductive, because they come to perceive it as a chore,’ says Rod Grant, head teacher of Clifton Hall School, Edinburgh . ‘This makes learning appear boring, arduous or both, and that is really dangerous, in my view.’

Most schools publish their homework policy on the school website , telling parents exactly what to expect. ‘Teachers should make their expectations very clear in terms of deadlines and how long it should take, and should also differentiate tasks to suit the level of the pupil,’ adds Steph.

No homework at all?

If your child doesn’t get any homework, you may feel out of touch with his learning, or concerned that he isn’t being challenged. But there are good reasons why some schools don’t set homework, or set it only occasionally, says Rod. ‘Although homework can be beneficial, family life tends to suffer as a result of it being imposed,’ he explains. ‘ If a school isn’t providing homework, there’s plenty that parents can do at home instead : reading with their children, doing number puzzles on car journeys, using online resources, and so on.’

Parents may also worry that without doing homework, children won’t develop study habits for later life. ‘There is genuinely no need for a six-year-old to get into a routine of working at home; there’s time to learn that later,’ Rod advises. ‘Parents need to relax and encourage children to love learning – and that comes when learning is fun, relevant and engaging, not through doing homework tasks that are unchallenging, or secretarial in nature.’

Homework: advice and support for primary-school parents

For information and support on all aspects of homework, from managing other siblings to helping with specific subjects, head to our Homework area.

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How Beneficial Is Homework for Students in Primary School?

Do Primary School Students Need to Do Homework?

• First Online: 12 October 2016

Cite this chapter

• Natalie Dobell 4  

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As I grew up I developed a positive view on the value of homework, thanks to regular support from my nanna, a retired primary school teacher, and from having cystic fibrosis, which made homework vital for me when I had to spend time in hospital. While I hated the homework, the transition back to class would have been difficult without it, and I am grateful that the teachers put in extra effort to keep me from falling behind. In my current practicum I had thus thought that homework would be beneficial, as a majority of this class were below average in reading and spelling. However, while my mentor teacher sometimes tried to assign homework, it was always completed by just the same few students and never by the others. When I investigated the issue further by asking many teachers about it, the majority thought that homework benefitted students’ reading, some stating that homework worksheets were particularly useful for upper primary students. Even so, from my practicum experiences, reading many articles, and discussions with teachers, parents and students, I have come to the conclusion that homework is not beneficial for all primary school students. There are many factors to consider, such as the socioeconomic levels of the class, the students’ academic abilities, and whether the students will require assistance and if that is available to them.

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Homework: Facts and Fiction

Baker, F. (n.d.). The great homework debate. http://www.kidspot.com.au/school/primary/homework/the-great-homework-debate . Accessed 29 Jan 2016.

MacGibbon, A. (2009, September 21). Life after school: All homework, no play. The Sydney Morning Hearald . http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/life/life-after-school-all-homework-no-play-20090920-fwt2.html . Accessed 29 Jan 2016.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2009). Education at a glance 2009: OECD indicators . http://www.oecd.org/edu/skills-beyond-school/educationataglance2009oecdindicators.htm . Accessed 29 Jan 2016.

Paton, G. (2014, October 5). Homework ‘damages’ primary age pupils. The Telegraph . http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/11140668/Homework-damagesprimary-age-pupils.html . Accessed 29 Jan 2016.

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Dobell, N. (2017). How Beneficial Is Homework for Students in Primary School?. In: Geng, G., Smith, P., Black, P. (eds) The Challenge of Teaching. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2571-6_32

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Education Endowment Foundation:Homework

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The Great British Homework Debate 2024 – Is It Necessary At Primary School?

Alexander Athienitis

The homework debate is never much out of the news. Should homework be banned? Is homework at primary school a waste of time? Do our children get too much homework?

Not long ago, UK-based US comedian Rob Delaney set the world alight with a tweet giving his own personal view of homework at primary school. We thought, as an organisation that provides maths homework support on a weekly basis, it was time to look at the facts around the homework debate in primary schools as well as, of course, reflecting the views of celebrities and those perhaps more qualified to offer an opinion!

Here’s how Rob Delaney kicked things off

Gary Lineker leant his support with the following soundbite:

And even Piers Morgan weighed in, with his usual balance of tact and sensitivity:

A very experienced and knowledgeable Headteacher, Simon Smith, who has a well-earned following on Twitter (for someone working in education, not hosting Match of the Day) also put his neck on the line and, some might think controversially, agreed with the golden-heeled Crisp King of Leicester…

Fortunately Katharine Birbalsingh, Conservative Party Conference keynote speaker and Founding Headteacher of the Michaela School, was on hand to provide the alternative view on the importance of homework. Her op-ed piece in the Sun gave plenty of reasons why homework should not be banned.

She was informative and firm in her article stating: “Homework is essential for a child’s education because revisiting the day’s learning is what helps to make it stick.”

KS2 Maths Games and Activities Pack

A FREE downloadable games and activity pack, including 20 home learning maths activities for KS2 children. Bring maths into your home in a fun way.

How much homework do UK primary school children get?

Sadly, there’s little data comparing how much homework primary school-aged children in the UK and across the globe complete on a weekly basis. A study of teenagers used by The Telegraph shows that American high-schoolers spend an average of 6.1 hours per week compared with 4.9 hours per week of homework each week for UK-based teens.

Up until 2012, the Department of Education recommended an hour of homework a week for primary school Key Stage 1 children (aged 4 to 7) and half an hour a day for primary school Key Stage 2 children (aged 7-11). Many primary schools still use this as a guideline.

Teachers, parents and children in many schools across the land have seen more changes of homework policy than numbers of terms in some school years.

A ‘no-homework’ policy pleases only a few; a grid of creative tasks crowd-sourced from the three teachers bothered to give their input infuriates many (parents, teachers and children alike). For some parents, no matter how much homework is set, it’s never enough; for others, even asking them to fill in their child’s reading record once a week can be a struggle due to a busy working life.

Homework is very different around the world

We’d suggest that Piers Morgan’s argument for homework in comparing the UK’s economic and social progress with China’s in recent years based on total weekly homework hours is somewhat misguided – we can’t put their emergence as the world’s (if not already, soon to be) leading superpower exclusively down to having their young people endure almost triple the number of hours spent completing homework as their Western counterparts.

Nonetheless, there’s certainly a finer balance to strike between the 14 hours a week suffered by Shanghainese school-attendees and none whatsoever. Certainly parents in the UK spend less time each week helping their children than parents in emerging economies such as India, Vietnam and Colombia (Source: Varkey Foundation Report).

Disadvantages of homework at primary school

Delaney, whose son attends a London state primary school, has made it plain that he thinks his kids get given too much homework and he’d rather have them following more active or creative pursuits: drawing or playing football. A father of four sons and a retired professional footballer Gary Linaker was quick to defend this but he also has the resources to send his children to top boarding schools which generally provide very structured homework or ‘prep’ routines.

As parents Rob and Gary are not alone. According to the 2018 Ofsted annual report on Parents Views  more than a third of parents do not think homework in primary school is helpful to their children. They cite the battles and arguments it causes not to mention the specific challenges it presents to families with SEND children many of whom report serious damage to health and self-esteem as a result of too much or inappropriate homework.

It’s a truism among teachers that some types of homework tells you very little about what the child can achieve and much more about a parent’s own approach to the work. How low does your heart sink when your child comes back with a D & T project to create Stonehenge and you realise it’s either an all-nighter with glue, cardboard and crayons for you, or an uncompleted homework project for your child!

Speaking with our teacher hats on, we can tell you that homework is often cited in academic studies looking at academic progress in primary school-aged children as showing minimal to no impact.

Back on Twitter, a fellow teacher was able to weigh-in with that point:

Benefits of homework at primary school

So what are the benefits of homework at primary school? According to the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (the key research organisations dedicated to breaking the link between family income and educational achievement) the impact of homework at primary is low, but it also doesn’t cost much.

They put it at a “+2 months” impact against a control of doing nothing. To put this into context, 1-to-1 tuition is generally seen as a +5 months impact but it’s usually considered to be expensive.

“There is some evidence that when homework is used as a short and focused intervention it can be effective in improving students’ attainment … overall the general benefits are likely to be modest if homework is more routinely set.”

Key to the benefit you’ll see from homework is that the task is appropriate and of good quality. The quantity of homework a pupil does is not so important. In this matter Katharine Birbalsingh is on the money. Short focused tasks which relate directly to what is being taught, and which are built upon in school, are likely to be more effective than regular daily homework.

In our view it’s about consolidation. So focusing on a few times tables that you find tricky or working through questions similar to what you’ve done in class that day or week often can be beneficial. 2 hours of worksheets on a Saturday when your child could be outside having fun and making friends probably isn’t. If you really want them to be doing maths, then do some outdoor maths with them instead of homework !

At Third Space Learning we believe it’s all about balance. Give the right sort of homework and the right amount at primary school and there will be improvements, but much of it comes down to parental engagement.

One of our favourite ways to practise maths at home without it become too onerous is by using educational games. Here are our favourite fun maths games , some brilliant KS2 maths games , KS1 maths games and KS3 maths games for all maths topics and then a set of 35 times tables games which are ideal for interspersing with your regular times tables practice. And best of all, most of them require no more equipment than a pen and paper or perhaps a pack of cards.

Homework and parents

One of the key benefits cited by EEF is in regard to parental engagement. Time after time, the greatest differentiator between children who make great progress at school – and those, frankly – who don’t is due to the same factor in the same studies: parental engagement .

It is a fair assumption that if a parent is engaged in their child’s learning, they’re probably going to be the same parents who encourage and support their child when they’re completing their homework.

Whereas parents who are disengaged with their child’s school and schooling – for whatever reason (sorry, Piers, it’s rarely due to laziness), are highly unlikely to be aware of what homework gets set each week, let alone to be mucking in with making sure it gets handed in completed and on time.

We also encounter time and again, the issue of parents’ own lack of confidence in maths. A survey by Pearson found that:

• 30 percent of parents “don’t feel confident enough in their own maths skills to help their children with their primary school maths homework”
• 53 per cent insisted they struggled to understand the new maths teaching methods used in modern classrooms. Fortunately that’s what we’re here to address.

Setting the right homework at primary school can be tricky

Although we disagree with Piers, we can see what he may be driving at in terms of setting appropriate homework.

The question quickly becomes what would Piers think of as being ‘interesting’ homework, and if all four of his children would agree upon the same thing being ‘interesting’.

That’s the problem.

One would imagine Piers would find it hard enough finding one task to satisfy the interest of all of his four children – it’s almost impossible to find a task that will engage the interest of 30 or more children in their out of school hours.

Each with different emotional, behavioural and learning needs, then sprinkle in the varying levels of poverty each family suffers (be it financial or in terms of time), and you can see how it isn’t just about being a good or bad teacher – whatever that means – in regards to being able to set Morgan-approved homework tasks.

What does this mean for my child?

Ultimately, the question at the top of mind whenever a parent thinks about homework is a more general one – am I doing the best for my child?

Although the world is changing at a faster pace than ever before in human history, what’s best for children hasn’t changed that much (if at all).

One-to-one support is best, and young people benefit most from adult-child conversations where they acquire new vocabulary and language structures to form and share their thoughts and opinions.

These insights – that one-to-one support is best and that regular, structured adult-child conversations are life-changing within a child’s development – are what inspired us to create Third Space Learning.

A platform where children can engage with a community of specialist tutors in a safe, structured learning environment where they are able to engage in one-to-one conversations that enable them to progress in their learning with confidence.

• How to help your child with their maths homework – A parents guide
• The Best Homework Hacks: 18 Tips And Tricks To Help Busy Parents Get It Done Faster!
• The 20 Most Recommended Teaching Blogs for UK Teachers and School Leaders

DO YOU HAVE STUDENTS WHO NEED MORE SUPPORT IN MATHS?

Every week Third Space Learning’s maths specialist tutors support thousands of students across hundreds of schools with weekly one to one tuition designed to plug gaps and boost progress.

Since 2013 these personalised one to one lessons have helped over 169,000 primary and secondary students become more confident, able mathematicians.

Learn about our experience with schools or request a personalised quote for your school to speak to us about your school’s needs and how we can help.

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What’s the point of homework?

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Homework hasn’t changed much in the past few decades. Most children are still sent home with about an hour’s worth of homework each day, mostly practising what they were taught in class.

If we look internationally, homework is assigned in every country that participated in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2012.

Across the participating countries, 15-year-old students reported spending almost five hours per week doing homework in 2012. Australian students spent six hours per week on average on homework. Students in Singapore spent seven hours on homework, and in Shanghai, China they did homework for about 14 hours per week on average.

Read more: Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading

Shanghai and Singapore routinely score higher than Australia in the PISA maths, science and reading tests. But homework could just be one of the factors leading to higher results. In Finland, which also scores higher than Australia, students spent less than three hours on homework per week.

So, what’s the purpose of homework and what does the evidence say about whether it fulfils its purpose?

Why do teachers set homework?

Each school in Australia has its own homework policy developed in consultation with teachers and parents or caregivers, under the guiding principles of state or regional education departments.

For instance, according to the New South Wales homework policy “… tasks should be assigned by teachers with a specific, explicit learning purpose”.

Homework in NSW should also be “purposeful and designed to meet specific learning goals”, and “built on knowledge, skills and understanding developed in class”. But there is limited, if any, guidance on how often homework should be set.

Research based on teacher interviews shows they set homework for a range of reasons. These include to:

establish and improve communication between parents and children about learning

help children be more responsible, confident and disciplined

practise or review material from class

determine children’s understanding of the lesson and/or skills

introduce new material to be presented in class

provide students with opportunities to apply and integrate skills to new situations or interest areas

get students to use their own skills to create work.

So, does homework achieve what teachers intend it to?

Do we know if it ‘works’?

Studies on homework are frequently quite general, and don’t consider specific types of homework tasks. So it isn’t easy to measure how effective homework could be, or to compare studies.

But there are several things we can say.

First, it’s better if every student gets the kind of homework task that benefits them personally, such as one that helps them answer questions they had, or understand a problem they couldn’t quite grasp in class. This promotes students’ confidence and control of their own learning.

Read more: Learning from home is testing students' online search skills. Here are 3 ways to improve them

Giving students repetitive tasks may not have much value . For instance, calculating the answer to 120 similar algorithms, such as adding two different numbers 120 times may make the student think maths is irrelevant and boring. In this case, children are not being encouraged to find solutions but simply applying a formula they learnt in school.

In primary schools, homework that aims to improve children’s confidence and learning discipline can be beneficial. For example, children can be asked to practise giving a presentation on a topic of their interest. This could help build their competence in speaking in front of a class.

Homework can also highlight equity issues. It can be particularly burdensome for socioeconomically disadvantaged students who may not have a space, the resources or as much time due to family and work commitments. Their parents may also not feel capable of supporting them or have their own work commitments.

According to the PISA studies mentioned earlier, socioeconomically disadvantaged 15 year olds spend nearly three hours less on homework each week than their advantaged peers.

Read more: 'I was astonished at how quickly they made gains': online tutoring helps struggling students catch up

What kind of homework is best?

Homework can be engaging and contribute to learning if it is more than just a sheet of maths or list of spelling words not linked to class learning. From summarising various studies’ findings, “good” homework should be:

personalised to each child rather than the same for all students in the class. This is more likely to make a difference to a child’s learning and performance

achievable, so the child can complete it independently, building skills in managing their time and behaviour

aligned to the learning in the classroom.

If you aren’t happy with the homework your child is given then approach the school. If your child is having difficulty with doing the homework, the teacher needs to know. It shouldn’t be burdensome for you or your children.

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Is Homework Bad for Kids in Elementary School?

As a teacher with a master’s in Education and over a decade of experience in the public education system, I’ve seen firsthand how the traditional model of assigning homework plays out in the lives of young students and their families.

Play. Learn. Thrive.™ only endorses products we authentically love and use. Some of the product links in this post may be affiliate links. That means that if you click them and make a purchase, this site makes a commission. Play. Learn. Thrive.™ is also an Amazon Associate. As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases. It will have no impact on the price you pay or the experience of your purchase. 

While the intent behind homework has often been to reinforce what was learned in class, the reality is that for elementary-aged children, homework can do more harm than good. This post will answer your question, “is homework bad for kids?” and discuss the negative impacts it can have on young children.

**Keep reading because I’ll share how you can OPT OUT of homework AND give you a simple copy and paste e-mail to let your child’s teacher know your plans respectfully .

Skip Ahead:

Historical Perspective on Homework

Homework wasn’t always an integral part of elementary education. In fact, it was originally seen as a way to promote discipline and work ethic in older students. 

Over time, this practice trickled down into elementary schools, where the rationale was that starting early would give younger children a head start. However, the expectations for homework have not evolved to reflect our growing understanding of child development .

Today, elementary school students as young as five or six are coming home with worksheets and assignments, and the assumption is that this will help them achieve better academic performance. 

But research studies show that for elementary school children, this assumption of homework being good for kids is simply not supported by evidence. The benefits of homework at this grade level are minimal, and the academic benefits are often negligible.

Say NO to Homework and Hello to Connection

So, you're looking to reduce homework stress while still helping your kids grow and learn?

I totally get it.The good news is, learning doesn't always have to look like schoolwork. In fact, some of the most valuable lessons come from play, creativity, and spending time together as a family. I’m an educator and a parent, and I know firsthand that the key is finding balance and making small, intentional changes that support your child’s growth while keeping things fun and easy for everyone.

Grab this Family Connections Activities Guide and my simple e-mail template to send a respectful note to your child's teacher letting them know you'll be opting out of homework this year.

Why do Teachers Assign Homework

Teachers often assign homework with the best intentions, aiming to reinforce concepts taught in class, build good study habits, and promote independent learning. 

Many educators believe that homework helps students practice skills, retain information, and prepare for future lessons.

It’s also seen as a way to teach responsibility and time management, as students must manage their workload outside the classroom. 

Additionally, homework can serve as a tool for teachers to gauge a student’s understanding of the material, helping them identify areas where further instruction might be needed.

However, homework assignments are often influenced by school policies or long-standing traditions, and teachers may feel obligated to assign them even when they recognize that the benefits might vary for different age groups, especially for younger students.

What the Research Says about Homework in Elementary School

According to research by education expert Harris Cooper, who conducted a comprehensive review of educational research , the benefits of homework for elementary students are virtually non-existent. 

Cooper’s findings suggest that while homework may have some positive impact for older students, particularly in high school, we do know there is no clear academic advantage for children in elementary school.

In fact, the average homework assignment at this age level does not significantly improve test scores or student achievement. What’s more concerning is the emotional and psychological toll excessive homework can take.

For young children who are still developing basic cognitive and social skills, being saddled with assignments after school can actually backfire. Instead of fostering a love of learning, it often creates frustration, resentment, and anxiety. 

I’ve watched bright, curious children become overwhelmed by the pressure of completing homework, losing the spark that makes them naturally want to learn.

Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Homework in Elementary School

Homework also cuts into time that could be spent on activities that are far more beneficial to a child’s overall well-being , such as physical activity or social time with family. 

When kids come home from school, they need time to unwind, play, and engage in after-school activities. Instead, they often end up sitting for long periods, working through assignments that may not even be meaningful to them. 

This sedentary time is especially problematic when you consider that many children already spend so much of their day sitting at desks.

In terms of mental health , homework can become a significant source of stress—not just for children, but for families as a whole. In many households, the nightly homework routine turns into a battleground, with parents and children feeling frustrated, exhausted, and disconnected. 

Physical symptoms of stress like stomach problems and sleep deprivation are not uncommon, and these can have lasting effects on a child’s well-being.

I’ve had parents tell me how much they dread homework time because it creates tension in their home, and as a teacher, that is heartbreaking to hear. 

Ultimately, young children need space to explore their world in ways that are developmentally appropriate. When homework eats into that time, it deprives them of opportunities to grow in areas that are just as important—if not more so—than academic achievement.

It’s time to rethink the purpose of homework for elementary students and consider what is truly best for their development.

Can Homework Cause Anxiety

Homework can often become a significant source of anxiety for children , especially when they feel overwhelmed by the pressure to complete assignments after an already long school day. 

Many young children struggle with balancing the demands of homework with their need for relaxation and play, leading to feelings of frustration and stress.

The fear of making mistakes, not meeting expectations, or not finishing on time can cause children to internalize a sense of failure or inadequacy, even at an early age.

This anxiety not only affects their academic performance but can also seep into their overall well-being, disrupting sleep, affecting their mood, and diminishing their natural enthusiasm for learning. 

Over time, the constant pressure of homework can turn what should be a joyful pursuit of knowledge into a source of dread, creating a negative association with school and learning.

Why Family Time Matters More Than Homework

One of the most critical lessons I’ve learned as both an educator and a parent is that family time often holds far more value for a child’s growth than any worksheet ever could. 

Elementary-aged children thrive on connection, play, and unstructured moments with the people they love most. Yet, for many families, the pressures of homework steal this precious time away, contributing to a lack of balance between school and family life.

When we prioritize homework over time together as a family, we miss out on some of the most powerful learning opportunities that childhood has to offer.

The Value of Family Time

Family time is where some of the most profound learning happens—learning that goes beyond academics and touches the heart of what it means to be human. It’s during these moments that children feel secure, loved, and understood. 

Whether it’s talking around the dinner table, playing a game together, or simply sharing a story before bed, these interactions build emotional resilience and strengthen family bonds.

Research supports this as well. Studies have shown that children who spend more time engaging with their familie s are more emotionally stable, perform better socially, and develop stronger cognitive abilities. 

Family time fosters the development of life skills that can’t be measured by a standardized test—skills like empathy, communication, problem-solving, and patience. These are the very qualities that help children grow into well-rounded, confident individuals.

When the evening is filled with homework, these opportunities for connection often disappear. Instead of discussing the day or laughing together, the focus shifts to checking off assignments. 

This often leads to a sense of disconnection and even resentment, particularly when children struggle with the work or feel pressure to meet academic expectations.

The Role of Play in Learning

Play is an essential part of learning , especially for young children. Through play, kids naturally explore their world, experiment with ideas, and develop critical thinking skills.

 In fact, many of the problem-solving skills that we hope to teach through homework can be acquired far more effectively through imaginative play, building projects, and outdoor exploration.

Play also promotes creativity and resilience—two traits that are fundamental to lifelong learning. When children are free to play, they learn to take risks, deal with failure, and try new approaches. 

These are lessons that are difficult to teach through structured assignments but come naturally through the unstructured, joyful moments of play.

In contrast, traditional homework often stifles creativity. Repetitive tasks like worksheets or rote memorization do little to encourage innovative thinking or curiosity. In fact, they can dampen a child’s enthusiasm for learning altogether. 

The real learning happens when kids are given the space to pursue their own interests, ask questions, and engage with the world around them.

Creating Meaningful Experiences

So, what should families do instead of focusing on homework? The answer is simple: create meaningful experiences together. These don’t have to be grand or elaborate. 

Sometimes the most impactful moments come from the simplest activities —cooking dinner together, going for a walk, or working on a puzzle as a family.

These shared experiences are the foundation of a child’s development. They teach life skills in a way that’s engaging and meaningful.

For example, cooking together can teach math through measuring ingredients, science through understanding how things cook, and even history and culture through trying new recipes. Going for a walk outside can spark conversations about nature, exercise, and mindfulness. 

These moments foster curiosity and help children develop a love of learning that extends beyond the classroom.

By prioritizing family time, we are giving our children something far more valuable than any homework assignment could offer. 

We are showing them that they are more than just students; they are individuals whose interests, emotions, and well-being matter. In these moments, we nurture their whole selves, not just their academic skills.

Alternatives to Homework for Elementary Children

If we want to move away from the traditional homework model, it’s important to have alternatives that nurture our children’s growth in ways that feel enriching and meaningful. 

The good news is that there are countless ways to encourage learning outside of homework , many of which tap into children’s natural curiosity and love for discovery.

These alternatives not only reinforce the skills children need but also give them the freedom to explore, create, and enjoy childhood.

Encouraging Independent Play and Exploration

One of the most powerful alternatives to homework is independent play . When children are given the space and time to play freely, they engage in a form of learning that is deeply personal and developmentally appropriate. 

Play allows them to test boundaries, experiment with ideas, and develop problem-solving skills—all without the constraints of structured assignments.

Independent play builds confidence and fosters a growth mindset , as children learn to navigate challenges on their own terms. 

Whether they’re building a fort out of couch cushions, creating a masterpiece with chalk on the driveway, or pretending to be explorers in their backyard, they’re learning how to think critically, solve problems, and stay resilient when things don’t go as planned.

Allowing children time for this kind of play gives them a chance to recharge from the structured demands of school and tap into their own creativity and imagination.

It also encourages them to become self-directed learners, which is an essential skill for their future academic and personal success.

Fostering a Love of Learning Outside the Classroom

Another alternative to homework is fostering a love of learning through everyday experiences.

We often think of learning as something that happens only in the classroom or through formal assignments, but in reality, children are constantly learning from the world around them.

Parents can support this by encouraging their children to explore their interests and ask questions. 

For example, if your child is fascinated by dinosaurs, take them to the library to find books on the subject or watch a documentary together.

If they’re curious about how things work, spend time tinkering with household objects or building simple machines together.

These activities teach valuable lessons and build knowledge in ways that are fun and engaging for children.

The goal is to create an environment where learning feels like a natural part of life rather than something that happens only when there’s a worksheet in front of them.

By pursuing their passions and engaging in hands-on learning experiences, children develop a deeper love for knowledge and a stronger sense of curiosity that will serve them well throughout their lives.

Prioritizing Social and Emotional Learning

Elementary-aged children are at a critical stage in their social and emotional development, and this is an area that deserves just as much attention as academic skills. 

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is about helping children develop self-awareness, manage their emotions, build empathy, and establish healthy relationships.

These are essential life skills that cannot be taught through traditional homework. Instead of worksheets, families can focus on activities that promote social and emotional learning.

This might include family discussions where children are encouraged to express their feelings and listen to others, cooperative games that emphasize teamwork and communication, or community service projects that build empathy and a sense of responsibility to others. 

These activities help children learn to navigate the social world with confidence and compassion.

They also teach children how to manage stress, resolve conflicts, and make thoughtful decisions—skills that are crucial for both their personal happiness and their future success.

What Parents Can Do to Advocate for Less Homework

As parents, we hold incredible power to influence the educational experiences of our children. If you believe that traditional homework doesn’t serve your child’s best interests , you’re not alone—and you don’t have to accept it as a given.

By advocating for a more balanced, thoughtful approach to learning, you can help shape a school environment that prioritizes well-being, curiosity, and real-world learning.

Here’s how you can start advocating for less homework and creating a home environment that supports learning without the pressure of assignments.

Can Parents Opt-Out of Homework

The idea that parents can opt out of homework is gaining traction as more families recognize that traditional assignments may not always serve their child’s best interests, especially in elementary school.

Some schools and teachers are open to this option, allowing parents to decide whether or not their child completes homework based on what works best for their family. Parents who opt out often do so to prioritize their child’s well-being, choosing to focus on unstructured play, family time, or personalized learning activities instead.

By opting out, parents take an active role in shaping their child’s education , advocating for a more balanced approach that nurtures both academic and personal growth.

However, it’s important for parents to communicate openly with teachers and schools about their decision, ensuring that everyone is aligned on supporting the child’s overall learning journey.

Communicating with Teachers and Schools

One of the most effective steps parents can take is to start a conversation with their child’s teacher. 

As a former teacher myself, I can tell you that most educators are open to feedback and genuinely want what’s best for their students. Often, teachers assign homework out of habit or due to school policies, not necessarily because they believe it’s the best method for every child.

Frame it as a partnership. 

Express your concerns in a respectful, constructive manner, and focus on your child’s well-being.

For example, you might say, “I’ve noticed that after a long day at school, my child seems exhausted and overwhelmed by homework. I’m wondering if there are ways we can work together to adjust the homework load or explore alternatives that are more beneficial for their development.”

Grab my Opt Out of Homework template here!

Be prepared to offer suggestions. 

Perhaps your child could engage in more hands-on learning at home , or the teacher could suggest activities that align with classroom content but don’t involve traditional homework.

You might also advocate for more reading time or projects that encourage creativity and independent thinking, rather than worksheets and busywork.

If your child’s school has a formal homework policy, it might be helpful to gather other like-minded parents and approach the administration collectively. 

Thankfully, many schools are rethinking their homework policies in light of recent years of research, and showing that there’s parent support for a change can help drive that discussion.

Creating a Home Environment That Supports Learning Without Homework

Even if homework is a part of your child’s school routine, you can create a home environment that balances those demands with opportunities for unstructured learning. One of the best ways to do this is by cultivating a home that encourages exploration, curiosity, and creativity .

Start by making learning a natural part of everyday life. Fill your home with books, art supplies , puzzles, building materials, and other resources that spark interest. 

Minimize toys that do the work for the child (toys should do no more than 10% of the work!), and create a space for play that is minimal and simple. Encourage your children to ask questions, explore their passions, and dive into projects that excite them.

The goal is to make learning feel less like a task and more like a natural extension of their curiosity.

Another key is to prioritize downtime. Make sure your children have time each day to unwind, play freely, and engage in activities that bring them joy. This could mean family game nights, outdoor play, or even just quiet time to read or daydream (remember, boredom is GOOD for kids!). 

When children have time to relax and recharge, they are better equipped to face the challenges of school and life with a positive attitude.

It’s also important to model a love of learning yourself. Let your children see you engaging in activities that involve discovery and growth—whether that’s reading a book, working on a hobby, or trying something new. 

When children see that learning doesn’t end when school is over, they are more likely to adopt that mindset themselves.

Finding a Balance That Works for Your Family

Ultimately, every family is different, and there’s no one-size-fits-all solution when it comes to homework (or anything for that matter!).

The key is finding a balance that works for your family’s unique needs and values. If you feel that your child’s homework load is affecting their well-being or family life, it’s okay to set boundaries.

You might choose to limit the hours of homework your child spends each evening, allowing them to stop after a certain point and focus on other activities.

Advocating for less homework doesn’t mean you’re against education—it means you’re for a more holistic approach to learning that respects your child’s developmental needs.

As parents, we have the right to prioritize what we believe is best for our children, even when it means challenging the status quo. 

By taking small steps, whether that’s having a conversation with a teacher or shifting the focus at home, you can help create a more balanced, enriching experience for your child—one that goes beyond the traditional homework model and nurtures their full potential.

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HOMEWORK IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: COULD IT BE MADE MORE CHILD-FRIENDLY?

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Homework plays a crucial role in the childhood environment. Teachers argue that homework is important for learning both school subjects and a good work ethic. Hattie (2013, p. 39) referenced 116 studies from around the world which show that homework has almost no effect on children's learning at primary school. Some studies have also found little effect on the development of a good work ethic or that homework may be counterproductive as children develop strategies to get away with doing as little as possible, experience physical and emotional fatigue, and lose interest in school (Cooper, 1989; Klette, 2007; Kohn, 2010). The present article argues that the practice of homework in Norwegian primary schools potentially threatens the quality of childhood, using Befring's (2012) five indicators of quality. These indicators are: good and close relationships, appreciation of diversity and variety, development of interest and an optimistic future outlook, caution with regards to risks, and measures to counteract the reproduction of social differences. The analysis builds on empirical data from in-depth interviews with 37 teachers and document analysis of 107 weekly plans from 15 different schools. The results show that the practice of homework potentially threatens the quality of childhood in all five indicators. The findings suggest that there is a needfor teachers to rethink the practice of homework in primary schools to protect the value and quality of childhood.

Homework, work-life balance, children's perspectives, quality indicators of childhood, work ethic

Introduction

Homework is defined as work teachers tell pupils to do outside of school hours (Cooper, 1989). Amounts of homework vary among teachers, schools, and countries. There's little data on how much time primary school pupils spend on homework, but according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and various educational research partners there are large differences among countries in how much time 15-year-old students spend doing homework. These numbers are based on students' self-reports on time spent per week doing homework or other studying assigned by teachers (OECD, 2014). As seen in Fig. 1, Finland, Korea, and the Czech Republic are the three countries with the lowest reported weekly times spent on homework. Norway is in the middle.

These numbers are based on self-reporting from 15-year-old students, and we cannot be sure about the degree to which this is also the case for primary school pupils. In the case of Norway, numbers from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2007 show that 50% of pupils in fourth grade spent less than 1 hour per day doing homework. A further 28% spent between 1 and 2 hours per day on homework, and 10% spent as much as 2-4 hours per day (Ronning, 2010).

In Norway, teachers are, in theory, free to choose whether or not to use homework with their students. At the same time, legislation instructs municipalities to provide 8 hours of homework support per week at school. Non-governmental organizations such as the Red Cross provide homework support to help children and families who have problems. It has also become big business to sell homework support to families who are struggling or who want something else from their family time.

Results from the TIMSS from 2003 to 2011 show that the volume of homework has increased over time (Valdermo, 2014). In 2009, Gronmo and Onstad presented TIMSS results showing that homework was corrected and given feedback by teachers to only a small extent. These authors argued that if homework is not corrected or connected to what is going on in the classroom it might leave the impression that homework is just something that should be done and not something from which to learn. They argued that Norwegian teachers should rethink homework in all subjects and make it more useful for learning (Gronmo & Onstad, 2009). What is surprising is that the idea of leaving an impression that homework is just something that should be done does not seem to be a problem that teachers and schools relate to. Doing something because it should be done is based on the idea that homework is a tool for teaching pupils a good work ethic. This is rarely mentioned in educational research and seldom subject to discussion. One explanation may be that schools as institutions have a strong need to maintain their hegemony and therefore feel endangered when academics ask critical questions about the school as an organization or about pedagogical practices (Aronowitz & Giroux, 1993). Apple (1982) argued that teachers and schools often blame problems on pupils or parents to avoid rethinking their practices. It is therefore of great academic importance to address these topics. The enormous gap in qualitative research on homework also makes it important to conduct research in this area.

Ronning's analyses of the TIMSS results for Norway from 2007 showed that pupils from low socioeconomic backgrounds who were assigned a large amount of homework had lower achievement than pupils with similar backgrounds who were assigned less homework. The study also showed that among the pupils who did homework, pupils with low socioeconomic backgrounds spent more time doing homework than pupils with high socioeconomic backgrounds did. There were also more pupils with low socioeconomic backgrounds who reported that they did not spend any time on homework (Ronning, 2010). This means the practice of homework has ethical issues that make it important to examine the practice in depth.

This article will present results showing how the practice of homework can endanger childhood in different ways. The health sector in Norway has reported an enormous increase in stress-related diseases among children over the past five years. It is now expected that 30% of children will have stress-related diseases during their childhood and that for 10-15% of them the disease will be so serious that they will need health services (Broyn 2016). After Hattie's (2013) findings, one cannot argue that this is the price we have to pay for children in primary school to learn, but some will argue that it is the price that must be paid to teach children a good work ethic. This article therefore includes reasoning about work ethics.

Before describing the present research, I will first consider what is implied by work ethics and consider previous research on homework and work ethics. I will then discuss Befring's (2012) five indicators of a high-quality childhood, namely:

1. Good and close relationships,

2. Appreciation of diversity and variety,

3. Development of interests and an optimistic future outlook,

4. Caution with regard to risks, and

5. Measures to counteract reproductive processes.

The Norwegian general curriculum states that "pupils' achievement is clearly influenced by the work habits acquired during their early years at school." Moreover, "good work habits developed at school have benefits far beyond the school framework." This is justified by the premise that school should prepare children for "the tasks of working and social life" (The Norwegian Directorate of Education and Training, 2015, p. 27). The curriculum does not describe what is meant by good work habits. So, what is meant by good work habits or a good work ethic and what does research say about the statement "pupils' achievement is clearly influenced by the work habits acquired during their early years at school"?

Work ethics are traditionally linked to adults' work and social lives. Weber laid much of the foundation for discussions of work ethics in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, published in 1904-5. The capitalist work ethic was then understood as the driving force behind industrialization, economic growth, and capitalism in North-west Europe and North America. A work ethic may be defined as "beliefs about the moral superiority of hard work over leisure or idleness, craft pride over carelessness, sacrifice over profligacy, earned over unearned income and positive over negative attitudes toward work" (Andrisani & Parnes, 1983, p. 104). Research has shown that the capitalist work ethic is now shared universally, albeit with cultural variations (Modrack, 2008, p. 7).

The capitalist work ethic consists of four dimensions. These are belief in hard work, avoidance of leisure, independence of others, and asceticism, i.e. abstaining from pleasure and enjoyment and even causing oneself distress. The same dimensions can be found in Islamic work ethics, but unlike capitalist ethics, here time is divided into three parts: one for rest, one for work, and one for religious, social, and family activities (Modrack, 2008; Rice, 1999; Shirokanova, 2015, p. 618). Good work ethics are also regarded as including not wasting time, being honest and diligent, persevering, and aiming at perfection.

Asian cultures are known to have high work ethics. A survey showed that one in five Japanese companies reported staff who are in danger of dying from overwork. "Karoshi" means death from overwork and such cases began being recorded in 1987. Every year, there are hundreds of deaths recorded as karoshi (E24, 2016).

The values of the capitalist work ethic have been criticized for not having any value in themselves but merely being an instrument for the reproduction of social inequality as a precondition for the organization of production in society (Juul, 2010; Befring, 2012). Increased production and economic growth have resulted in threats to the environment and people's health. The French philosopher André Gorz argued that a work ethic as we know it is passé and can no longer be said to be relevant to current or future work or society. He argued that such a work ethic has become obsolete and that it is no longer true that increased production means increased work or that increased production will lead to an improved way of life. According to Gorz, current and future working life and society require us to produce and work differently. In light of this perspective, two new approaches to work ethics have appeared: "a work-life balance" and "working smart" (Ford, 2014). So what does a work-life balance mean and can it be called a work ethic? A work-life balance approach to work ethics emphasizes, similarly as with Islamic work ethics, a division between focus at work and focus on being a human (Goleman, 2013). In Islamic work ethics, religion is the reason for doing various things during a day. With a work-life balance, activities are based on what research has found to be the most efficient for people to be able to focus on work and work smart when working. Research has concluded that a balance in life is important for efficiency. This approach differs from that of the capitalist work ethic, which emphasizes working as much as possible and that working more will help you work better. Since the main argument for a work-life balance is that it will make people more efficient, it shares the main goal of a capitalist perspective on work ethics. Research has shown that meditation, spending time in nature, and doing something truly enjoyable are the most important things we can do in our spare time in order to work smarter when we work (Goleman, 2013). For some people, this will mean activities such as spending time with family or friends, praying, and being outside. We see that this runs contrary to the familiar work ethic of working hard, disconnecting from nature, and avoiding anything that is fun or pleasurable.

There is research showing that homework can help pupils develop good work habits, such as following instructions, setting goals, organizing work, allocating time, and discovering strategies for dealing with mistakes, difficulties, and disturbances (Bempechat, 2004; Cooper et. al 2006; Corno & Xu, 2004) but the literature is not unambiguous. There are studies showing a negative correlation between homework and the acquisition of good work habits and work ethics. One literature review studying 100 articles and books about study techniques for pupils found that 88-95% were about organizing time, reading techniques, test preparation, and notetaking techniques (Hadwin & Tevaarwerk, 2004). It remains up for discussion how useful these skills are for students' future working lives. In a video observational study of a fifth-grade classroom, Klette (2007, p. 352) found that a group of observed boys had established what she called a minimum strategy culture regarding homework. She also found that some pupils finished their maths homework immediately and some procrastinated on it. There were few indications of pupils doing some work every day in accordance with the idea that long-term and repeated work would lead to good results. This study found that both students who did things quickly and those who procrastinated sometimes could go for up to 12 days before they did any maths after school hours. This shows the importance of being clear when assigning homework about what is actually meant by a good work ethic and good work habits.

Quality indicators of childhood

Childhood has two functions. First, it has great intrinsic value because of its essence that is fundamentally important to protect. Second, childhood is the foundation for personality development throughout life (Befring, 2012, p. 30). Although childhood is primarily part of the private family, it is also institutionalized in that the child spends considerable time at school. Children at primary school stand with one foot in their family and one foot in their school. Homework can be a tool to create cooperation between the two realms.

Befring (2012) introduced five quality indicators of childhood: good, close relationships and networks; appreciation of diversity and variety; development of interests and optimism; caution regarding risks; and prevention of reproductive processes. Most important for children are good, close relationships and networks. This implies that families need support and encouragement to manage their responsibilities. The family must have suitable working conditions for these responsibilities. It is important to emphasize that families are far less well prepared than school professionals are to work at learning tasks. The modern family is very serious about parenting, but it is stressful and demanding to combine this with work. There may also be financial or personal problems in the family.

Appreciation of diversity and variety is also an important indicator of a good childhood; this involves nurturing the particular qualities of each individual child. The greatest threat to this is what Befring calls the positivistic educational concept. This means one-dimensional teaching that tries to force all learners into a single mold, and Befring argues for renewal in this area. An important point is that children are not small adults. Children are very different from adults in terms of their perceptions of the world, their interests, and their activity and other life needs. Play is important in understanding children's basic characteristics (Befring, 2012). Good conditions for play can be very important for harmonious cognitive and socio-emotional learning and development (Smith, 2003; Dale, 1996).

The third indicator of a good childhood is the development of interests and optimism. Children need something to be involved and interested in, and this is where play and leisure activities are key. According to Vygotsky (1978), pleasure is the most significant feature of play. Play is also characterized by the creation of imaginary situations with imaginary activities. Because their actions are detached from the environment around them, children can act independently of what they perceive. When children play, they rise above the physical limitations of their environment. In play, the environment ceases to dominate the child. Play is a state where the child shakes off reality for a while and has the opportunity to try out ideas and realize wishes in "another kind of make-believe world" (Vygotsky, 1978). Because play is such an important part of childhood as well as being important for sound learning and development, it is essential to allow children time to play freely and to include the form and content of play in educational methods to some extent. The second part of this indicator is an optimistic outlook. The key here is experiences of mastery and the development of a belief in self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).

With regard to children's interest, Montessori has presented some interesting perspectives. One of the most profound observations made by Montessori was that it is natural for children to work and that they love doing so (Montessori, 1936, 2009). She was convinced that children had hidden abilities that were overlooked by educators, and she spent her life trying to show how these abilities could be activated. Montessori found that children had great capacities for self-training as well as for concentration and self-discipline when their work suited their stage of development. She also noticed that children had a great ability to persevere and repeat activities. She viewed this as an internal resource for the child to retain and develop what was learned, noting that such an internal resource could not be forced. The teacher's role is crucial in this; according to Montessori, inner motivation is aroused by exploration and testing in school, nature, and the community.

Caution with regard to risk is the fourth indicator. Deadlocked issues in family interactions are a specific area where caution is needed. Families who experience such problems must not be left to themselves but need to receive help as soon as possible (Befring, 2012, p. 108). Another risk factor is learning difficulties, where early interventions are needed, tailored to the individual child.

The fifth and final indicator is about prevention in terms of systematic efforts to prevent harm, limit risks, strengthen children's resilience to risk, and provide support to those with unacceptable behavior. These points are generally relevant to homework, but it is perhaps more important to work proactively to prevent the reproduction of social inequality because of the enormous consequences involved.

This article is based on data from a qualitative study involving in-depth interviews of teachers and a document analysis of weekly plans for grades 1 to 7 at 15 primary schools in Norway. The purpose was to find out why and how primary school teachers assign homework. Data were collected in a pilot study in autumn 2012 and in a complete study in autumn 2015. All project participants in the project signed a consent form that guaranteed anonymity and informed them that the interview data would be used in research into homework practices.

Participants

Project participants were qualified teachers with primary school experience. All had experience with teacher-parent contact, except for one who was a subject teacher. Two participants also had further qualifications in special education. Two had become deputy heads and one was a headmaster. They were all asked to respond based on their experience as primary school teachers. There was a range of ages and years of experience. Each teacher interviewed was also asked to submit three weekly plans. All weekly plans were from the autumn term, as that was when the data were collected. Ten people were interviewed in 2012. Four interviews were lost because of problems with the recordings. Other work demands meant that it was three years before I had the opportunity to involve students in more research. In 2015, 32 additional teachers were interviewed. One teacher participated in both data collections. The analysis included 37 interviews; 26 interviewees were women (aged 30 to 67 years) and 11 were men (aged 28 to 62). Participants were from 15 schools, all of which were used for teaching practice by 0stfold University College.

The selection criterion for study participants was primary school teaching experience. One criterion for selection in 2015 was not having participated in the 2012 pilot study. This was to elicit a wide variety of responses, not because they could not provide important information after some time. I chose to include both interviews with the single informant who participated in both 2012 and 2015 because the questions were different between the two interviews. Using random sampling seemed to be a good strategy because students had been asked to find respondents at their training schools. I also assumed that most teachers could give valuable information about the topic.

First, the schools and training teachers were informed about the research project at an informational meeting at 0stfold University College. They were told that students would make contact to conduct interviews for the project. All informants worked at teaching practice schools, but not all were practice teachers. The students made contact and arranged for the interviews.

The study was based on a small sample of teachers and schools and thus does not provide a basis for generalization to all Norwegian schools or teachers. However, the design forms the basis for analytical generalization (Yin, 1994).

The criterion for selecting weekly plans was that they should represent ordinary weeks and the usual way of assigning homework. Informants could choose the weeks included. All of them submitted weekly plans except for one informant whose homework practice did not involve weekly plans.

The study might be criticized because students in basic courses were used as research assistants. There were many variables related to data collection over which I had no control. In 2012, I received the audio files and transcribed them myself. In 2015, in contrast, students submitted transcriptions from interviews, not audio files. This had the advantage of students gaining valuable experience by doing work for a real research project and reflecting on the topic at the same time as providing valuable data collection that could be used by undergraduate students as well as my colleagues and me. The final database was made available to one bachelor's degree student in 2013 and six in spring 2016. Student involvement enabled in-depth interviews with many more teachers from more schools than if I alone had been responsible for all data collection. To ensure optimal quality, students received a detailed introduction to the interview method and transcription with practical exercises. They were also provided with an interview guide and were asked to stick to the questions provided. At least two students conducted each interview together.

Semi-structured interviews

I decided to use semi-structured interviews to aid in the comparison of data emerging from the interviews. Two interview guides were used, one for each data collection. These were developed in a workshop in collaboration with the students who were to conduct the interviews, after which I assessed them for quality. The interview guide used in 2012 was slightly shorter and had rather more open questions on how and why homework was assigned. There were also questions about the respondent's attitude regarding the public debate about homework. This is why I call this study a pilot study. The 2015 interview guide was used to elaborate on some issues that arose after the data collection in 2012; these included opinions on a homework-free school, what were considered examples of good and bad homework, how respondents felt about the critical reflection on the practice of homework, and whether they felt they had real freedom in methods. It could be argued that using the same interview guide for both data collections would have been preferable, but, inspired by grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1999), I chose to use the second data collection to go into greater detail on the data that had emerged from the first collection, which had been more like a pilot study.

With so many different interviewers, the quality of the interviews varied. In one of the interviews from 2012, one student went too far in asking leading questions to try to convince the given teacher that homework was not good. These efforts apparently did not affect the teacher's opinions, but it may have affected the clear way in which she expressed them. I believe that the asymmetry between the teachers and students in the interview was positive in that leading questions would influence the answers. As mentioned earlier, I lost four interviews from 2012 due to damaged audio files. In 2015, the transcriptions show that most interviewers did a good job of following the interview guide and asking follow-up questions. In some of the interviews, it was clear that the interviewer was not very committed to the questions. The atmosphere seemed somewhat formal and the answers were short and revealed little information. The interview guide encouraged interviewers to ask for examples and follow up answers. The transcriptions show that on several occasions they did so. Some interviews resulted in more information and stories than others did. I believe that would have been true in any case. All interviews were included in the data collection.

For this qualitative study, I chose a design that combined in-depth interviews with an analysis of weekly plans because sometimes informants provide in interviews a representation of their practice that is more politically correct or positive than a faithful description would be. Analyzing weekly notes in addition to the interviews should enhance the reliability of the study (Glaser & Strauss 1999).

Another way of ensuring reliability was collecting data on a larger scale after several years (Tjora, 2010). Expanding the range of teachers, grades, and schools has strengthened the data. To further enhance the data, I could have chosen to observe teachers' practice of assigning homework in the classroom and their meetings with parents, but this was not possible at the time. Klette (2007) has also used video observational studies to examine how work schedules are prepared and followed up. Interviews with pupils and their parents also could have provided a more comprehensive understanding. Such interviews are planned as well as potentially observations of pupils and parents. The analysis combined open, selective, and axial coding of the data (Robson, 2002).

In terms of work ethics, the results show that one reason for assigning homework to primary school pupils is to enable them to learn a good work ethic that would benefit them later in life. One teacher said, "I think about work ethics and making an effort and taking responsibility for homework ... because you can't get everythingforfree in this world and they need to find out that it costs something."

The results also show that the predominant way of assigning homework was in line with what Befring (2012) called the positivistic school tradition. Some teachers said that they practise in this way even though they do not think it is a good method. One teacher said:

We often base general homework on the textbooks. It gets to be very automatic. It would probably be a good idea to shake up that mindset a bit. It's been the samefor at least the 10 years I've been working.... You often just take the next three exercises in the book and assume that it's good enough homework.

Analysis of weekly plans shows that the most homework was assigned in Norwegian, mathematics, and English classes, with homework sometimes being assigned in religious education, social studies, and science classes and seldom or never in practical subjects such as arts and crafts, physical education, and food and health. The usual way of assigning homework is to assign the same work to all pupils in a class. Pupils with special needs often get their own weekly schedule; there are typically three or four of these per class. Homework is assigned on average 15 times per week to primary school pupils, regardless of age. Such homework primarily consists of reproducing information and is taken from the textbook or sheets of paper copied by teachers. Learning vocabulary, reading, words of the week, practice for dictation, handwriting, and sums are the most usual types of homework. "Revision of familiar material" is often the justification for the choice of exercises and the practice of homework. The consequences of not doing homework are reported as: being required to do it during a break, detention, a letter to parents, or no consequences at all. Analysis of the weekly plans also shows that it is the pure capitalist work ethic which is being cultivated, while we see no trace of elements such as meditation, being in nature, or doing something enjoyable. Rather, the results reveal scant appreciation of the value of what pupils really enjoy.

In terms of good, close relationships, several teachers mentioned pupils and parents who go too far when homework is to be done, meaning, for example, that the homework is done because the pupil has a guilty conscience or is afraid of negative consequences and/or that the parents push their children too hard. One teacher said, "It's not a matter of life and death to do the homework. It should only be done if it's a positive experience for the kids. You don't learn anything when mum and dad are sitting there yelling at their kids to do their maths." The interviews contained many examples of conflicts due to homework, often because it was difficult for students to get help at home. One teacher expressed this idea as follows:

You might have parents who force their child to sitfor two hours doing homework that they may not understand or that they find difficult because homework has to be "perfect" and "look nice". And that leads to a bad atmosphere and maybe some wet eyes, and then I kind of think you've gone a bit too far.

The results show that maths homework in particular made parents feel incompetent and inferior, and they contacted teachers about their challenges in helping their children. Some teachers stated that they had managed to create a good culture where parents were welcome to contact them and say they are having problems. Several said that such problems for parents normally increase with their child's age. They said that things are fine for most parents when their children are in first or second grade, that this is often followed by more problems from third to fifth grade, and that it can be very difficult for parents to help sixth and seventh graders and so the level of conflict increases.

The interviews reveal that many teachers found that families have problems with stress and time pressure after school hours due to recreational activities. Yet, the common perception is that pupils should spend 30-60 minutes per day on such activities.

With regard to the appreciation of diversity and variety, the results show that this is given little attention in homework practices; all pupils generally get assigned the same homework. In maths, pupils are sometimes allowed to choose the level of difficulty. Moreover, there may be voluntary exercises in addition to the mandatory ones. The type of homework does not vary much: great emphasis is placed on reading and writing in all subjects. Homework requires reproduction of knowledge rather than allowing pupils to involve their own world. There also seemed to be a widespread belief that homework should take priority over both family life and leisure activities. One teacher said, "I make it clear that homework should be given priority over other things. And if homework is neglected repeatedly, we contact the home."

Interests and a positive future outlook were also rarely catered to in homework practices. Pupils were mostly assigned the same homework irrespective of their level, leading to great variation in self-efficacy behavior. Responsibility for adapting work was usually handed over to pupils and parents; they had to contact the teacher if they thought the work was too much or too difficult. However, teachers' opinions of very good homework were that it should give pupils a feeling of mastery and be about topics they could investigate and find interesting. Very good homework, according to the teachers, should satisfy the following criteria:

* Be adapted to the pupil's interests and abilities.

* Provide challenges and opportunities for mastery.

* Include exciting, investigative work involving the student's house, family, or friends.

* Inspire creativity through drawing or technology.

In relation to caution regarding risk, some teachers said they are reluctant to be too hard on pupils who have not done their homework because they may have all sorts of reasons for not doing it. Some pupils have their own homework plan. None of the teachers took special account of differences between families before assigning homework; everyone was assigned the same work. Teachers had three different views of parents' role in homework. One group thought parents should not play any role and pupils must cope by themselves. For another group, the parents' role is to make pupils do homework and check if it has been done. A third group believed that parents should make pupils do homework and help them with it. They will find the solution, but few reflected on how homework poses a risk in itself because it is done outside of school hours in a learning environment that the teacher has little control over. There was a naive belief that the learning environment at home is better and quieter than that at school.

Teachers generally believed they could always find a solution for a pupil to get homework done or to do less. Few considered not assigning homework. This is illustrated in the following example:

Many of them have a hard time at home. Cramped space and no room for any good experiences around [homework]. You find marital breakups and lots of that difficult stuff when you mess around with people's spare time. So you need to be sensitive; I think that's really important. So we don't tellpeople what to do in their private lives. Then homework doesn't work in a positive way. Then you just have to react quickly.

Finally, the results revealed little reflection on the prevention of the reproduction of social inequality in homework practices. Nevertheless, many teachers mentioned examples of this. One problem is that parents are responsible for helping pupils and contacting the teacher about adapting work to their child; many will not call or will wait too long before contacting the teacher. One teacher explained that he is happy to get calls from parents who do not understand the homework:

There may be some who don't get so much help at home, and if they didn't understand it at school, then they struggle. I've had calls from parents asking if I can explain it to them because they didn't understand it themselves. It's mostly weak pupils who struggle, and their home may not be very nice, so they haven't got the knowledge to learn it. Then they ring me. I say, "If you have any questions, just ring me" We're a small school so I know most of them. So if they talk for 15 minutes, it's OK with me.

Another teacher explained how social inequalities could increase through homework: "The ones who have too many leisure activities care less about school.... And then it's the weakest ones who opt out of homework and the best educatedparents who might get even better pupils because they help their children to a very different degree"

This article examined how homework is used as an instrument to teach pupils a good work ethic and how this threatens a high-quality childhood. The results reveal a need for more child-friendly homework practices.

Good, close relationships

The results show that teachers clearly realized that homework can threaten good, close parent-child relationships because it may lead to conflicts. These conflicts are connected to finding time for homework, getting started, completing it, and sometimes how it should be done. This is consistent with findings from other studies. In a survey of 500 US parents, 30% reported that homework was one of the main sources of stress and disagreements in the family (Blazer, 2009). In another survey, 50% of parents reported discussions with their children about homework that involved crying and shouting, and 22% admitted that this frustration had led to their doing the homework for the child (Johnson et al., 2006).

If homework is to support good, close relationships between parents and children, it should not be excessive. It is also important that both parents and children perceive homework as being meaningful and useful. One way to achieve this could be to assign homework in different subjects, involving fewer repetitive exercises. Teachers are responsible for working out how homework can enhance child-parent relationships.

Appreciation of diversity and variety and the opportunity to develop interests and optimism

Kohn (2007) argued that most teachers assign homework based on a philosophy where they say, "We've decided ahead of time that children will have to do something every night (or several times a week), later on we'll figure out what to make them do." This involves little emphasis on choosing work that pupils will enjoy or benefit from or that will meet parents' need for information about their child's development.

Teachers have a clear idea of what is meant by very good homework. It should be adapted to the pupil's interests and abilities; provide challenges and opportunities for mastery; include exciting, investigative work involving the student's house, family, or friends; and encourage creative activity. The major challenge is what prevents teachers from assigning such homework. If these criteria are to be met, it will be difficult to assign all pupils the same homework. Pupils will have more influence on homework and the teacher will risk encountering resistance from colleagues and parents who want to maintain the old system. Given Montessori's theory of pupils' innate desire for learning and Vygotsky's arguments for the benefits of play, there are more than enough pedagogical arguments for the new criteria. Since arguments that traditional homework does not promote learning have been insufficient to change practice, teachers may lack arguments that very good homework encourages the kind of work ethic that work and society need and is in accordance with indicators of a good childhood. Parents could be told that the capitalist work ethic can also be learned at home or in leisure activities. Kohn (2007) argues that it is better to learn the value of repetition and hard work in leisure activities because it is easier to see the purpose of the practice and to achieve results quickly.

Instead of downplaying children's leisure time, teachers and parents should look to transfer its value to school. A Norwegian study found a positive correlation between school performance and sport participation among adolescents, while those who spent substantial time on computer games did well in English (Sletten, Strandbu, & Gilje, 2015).

Caution with regard to risks

One negative effect of homework is that parents often give inadequate or poor help. The current study shows that teachers have a varied set of parents to deal with. Berglyd (2003) divided parents into groups: positive, helpful, and skillful ones; critical ones; uncertain ones; irresponsible ones; and those with illnesses or problems. Educated parents can found be in all of these groups. All pupils are assigned the same homework, irrespective of such differences. In this regard, teachers show caution if a pupil has not done the homework, but not by adapting the content, translating the weekly newsletter for immigrant parents, or assigning no homework to children with sick parents or parents with bad experiences from their own schooling. What happens when simple homework such as the word of the week meets critical or uncertain parents? What happens when one pupil learns vocabulary with positive, well-educated parents, while other pupils learn it with uncertain parents? Clearly, the home and family is a variable that involves risk. In order to exercise caution in relation to this risk, it is necessary to assess when parents can definitely provide good help with homework. One teacher said that textbooks should include guidelines for parents to help them feel more secure about what they are doing. Another teacher distinguished between three levels of solving a task. The lowest level is when a pupil solves it by seeing others solve it. The second level is when a pupil can solve it by asking or cooperating with others. At the third level, the pupil can solve it alone. This could form the basis for what we might call confidence steps. Only when a pupil is at the third step can he or she do the work at home without being at risk of poor parental help. The key here is that pupils cannot be assigned the same homework, but their teacher must ensure the quality of their homework in advance. For example, parents should not be reading tutors for pupils who cannot read or who read with difficulty. The purpose of homework could be to inform parents of what the pupil is able to do. This way of thinking about confidence allows for more exploratory and creative tasks without definitive answers, while repetitive work is done at school with professional help.

Using these confidence steps could also help to prevent the school from reproducing social inequality, which is the fifth indicator of a good childhood. Self-instructive learning can be done at home. Several of the teaching aids originally created by Montessori are now available as apps and computer programs.

The results show that the practice of homework has a bias towards theory that needs to be remedied. Befring argued that pupils choosing vocational jobs may feel inferior and unhappy because they are not good at theory. He wrote that in practice, despite good policy goals, schools are organized such that pupils who will make important contributions to society through practical work must first fulfil educational duties where they are subdued and degraded (Befring, 2003, in Befring, 2012, p. 219). It is very important that homework is not practiced as such a duty but instead allows for diversity, variety, interest, and optimism for all pupils. In primary school, it is vital to consider how play and pleasure can be more prominent: if not at school, at least in leisure time. According to Vygotsky, this is important for children to be able to process their learning. Goleman argued that it is important to do something enjoyable so as to be able to focus better when it is time to work, even for adults. Montessori claimed that she had identified resources in children which teachers had not noticed. Perhaps some of these resources will become more visible if homework practices are based on children's perspectives.

This study reveals that the practice of homework in primary school rests on an ideology linked to the capitalist work ethic that there is good reason to reflect critically on. This work ethic threatens key quality indicators of childhood, such as good, close relationships; variety and diversity; optimism; caution regarding risk; and the prevention of reproductive processes. The capitalist work ethic has also outlived its usefulness for future society and working life (Ford 2014).

Homework is too widespread and risky to have key documents be unclear as to how and why it should be practiced. Educational plans should have a clear policy to ensure that homework also enhances pupils' health, wellbeing, and learning. In connection with this, the concept of confidence steps should be involved and homework should be linked to the three factors that lead to smarter work and a better work-life balance, namely meditation, time in nature, and doing something truly enjoyable (Goleman 2013).

There is still very little research on pupils' and parents' thoughts on why and how homework is practiced, and more research is clearly needed. Teachers in this study emphasized the enormous time pressure they are under, which means that pupils must do homework to complete the syllabus. Is the syllabus too big and the school day or year too short and, if so, is homework the ideal solution? This area also requires greater understanding and more research.

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Corresponding author

Kjersti Lien Holte

Departement of Health and Social Science, 0stfold University College, Norway

E-mail: [email protected]

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Psychology Spot

All About Psychology

Endless Classes: Do Students Have Too Much Homework?

Homework. Just hearing the word makes more than one student cringe because it means more effort and less free time. After a long school day, the last thing they probably want is to keep studying. And that’s understandable.

Despite this, many teachers still assign homework as if there’s no tomorrow, thinking their subject is the only one in the curriculum and setting tight deadlines that force students to juggle their schedules. Are we going overboard? Are students being given too much homework? And how beneficial is it really?

More Isn’t Always Better: Where’s the Limit?

The debate about how much homework students should take home isn’t new. It has been going on for a long time. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine how beneficial homework really is and, more importantly, at what point it stops being helpful.

The reasoning behind teachers assigning homework has always been: if a student spends more time practicing multiplication tables, studying grammar, or grasping chemistry, they should improve in those subjects. However, our brain doesn’t work in such a straightforward way.

There’s no doubt that homework helps students better understand their subjects and retain important concepts , but not to the same extent. In other words, more isn’t always better.

There’s a limit beyond which exposure to a particular subject no longer provides any benefit . As a general rule, first graders shouldn’t spend more than 10 minutes on homework. That time increases as their attention span improves, up to a maximum of two hours in high school.

Beyond that point, fatigue sets in, attention wanes, and frustration kicks in. Mistakes become more frequent, stress levels rise, and useful information stops sinking in. It’s as if the brain “shuts down,” making continued studying counterproductive.

In this regard, a study by the University of Oviedo found that students who were regularly assigned math and science homework performed better on exams. However, the study also revealed that the amount of homework only accounted for 6% of the variation in test scores. Beyond 90 to 100 minutes per day, scores started to drop.

The researchers concluded that “How students do their homework is more important than how much they do” and that “The optimal duration is one hour per day.” They also highlighted that students’ prior ability and knowledge of the subject were essential for getting the most out of homework.

Nevertheless, a survey realized in the United States found that high school students were taking home an average of 3 hours of homework per day. Despite this workload—or perhaps because of it—students didn’t show more interest in homework. They reported higher stress levels and, unsurprisingly, less free time to unwind or connect with family and friends. They also experienced more health problems, such as headaches, stomach issues, and lack of sleep. It’s no surprise that some students even considered paying someone to do their homework .

Striking a Balance Between Academic Demands and Rest

Homework has always been a source of stress for students, and that’s nothing new. In fact, that kind of demand is important, not only academically to reinforce knowledge or apply what’s learned in the classroom but also for the overall development of their personality.

The purpose of homework is to:

• Teach students how to better manage their time
• Encourage students’ independence and the ability to work on their own
• Stimulate critical thinking through problem-solving
• Reinforce values such as discipline, organization, and responsibility

Even the positive stress (eustress) that homework can generate can be useful for developing stress management strategies that will be crucial later in life. But everything has a limit.

No one denies that the primary responsibility of children, teens, and young adults is to study, but it’s also important for them to have free time to develop other skills in different areas of life. Academic preparation and challenging our limits are important, but so is prioritizing health and well-being. Learning math or philosophy is important, but so is developing social skills, learning to empathize with others, and knowing when to switch off before hitting a point of no return.

In fact, we often think of our brain as an unlimited computer, but it’s more like a vacuum cleaner, as explained by researchers at Harvard University . It can take in a lot of information, but after a certain point, attention declines, and short-term memory becomes overloaded. At that moment, continuing to study is counterproductive because it’s like trying to keep vacuuming with a full dust bag.

Homework isn’t going away—and it shouldn’t—but perhaps it’s time to be more mindful of how much is assigned . A study conducted at the University of Minho revealed that students’ perception of the quality and purpose of homework was crucial to their performance.

If students are assigned too much homework that doesn’t add value, they’ll view it as a source of stress and a waste of time. Why assign 20 math problems when 10 would suffice? Teachers should also keep in mind that not all students will take the same amount of time to complete their homework. What might take one student half an hour could take another two hours.

In summary, the concept of meaningful learning should also extend to homework planning, ensuring that homework serves as a useful tool rather than being perceived as a necessary evil that students want to get rid of as quickly as possible. That attitude helps no one.

References:

Rosário, P. et. Al. (2018) Homework purposes, homework behaviors, and academic achievement. Examining the mediating role of students’ perceived homework quality. Contemporary Educational Psychology; 53: 168-180.

Fernández-Alonso, R. et. Al. (2015) Adolescents’ Homework Performance in Mathematics and Science: Personal Factors and Teaching Practices. Journal of Educational Psychology; 107(4): 1075–1085.

Galloway, M. et. Al. (2013) Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools. The Journal of Experimental Education; 81(4): 490–510.

Jennifer Delgado

I am a psychologist and I spent several years writing articles for scientific journals specialized in Health and Psychology. I want to help you create great experiences. Learn more about me .

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11/09/2024 By Jennifer Delgado

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