quotes for essay philosophy

• The 44 Most Famous & Thought-Provoking Philosophy Quotes From History’s Greatest Philosophers

Even if you’ve never opened a philosophy book, you’ll likely find quotes from great philosophers transformative and inspiring. Why? Philosophy has 2 definitions: one as a field of study, and one as “a theory or attitude that acts as a guiding principle for behavior.” In layman’s terms, any rule or idea that helps you make decisions and move forward with your life is philosophy! So, whether you want to brush up on your philosophy knowledge or simply find some powerful, encouraging words, today’s list of the best philosophy quotes of all time will be right up your alley!

At Four Minute Books, we’ve summarized over 1,000 books , including many philosophy classics and modern bestsellers on the topic. As part of this journey, we’ve not only discovered the top philosophy titles . We also made our own highlights and took notes along the way.

In this organized list, we’ll share with you the 14 most famous philosophy quotes from some of history’s first philosophers. You’ll also discover 20 of the top ideas from modern-age philosophers (post-15th century). To round things out, we’ve included 10 quotes from ancient Stoics, since Stoicism is our favorite philosophy here at Four Minute Books. All quotes come with sources, of course, in a dedicated section. Finally, you’ll see where you can find more great philosophy quotes, get some sharing images for social media, and even a little primer on what philosophy is and what the most popular and well-known philosophies are.

Want a list of the 7 best philosophy books of all time to learn more about Stoicism, Existentialism, and others straight from history’s greatest philosophers? Download our free PDF, print it, and get to know the many worldviews that can help us think and live better. Or save it for later and read it whenever you want!

The easiest way to navigate this list is to use the clickable table of contents below. Jump  to whichever section seems most interesting with a single tap! If you want to share any quote on this list, simply highlight it. Several sharing options will appear. Or, you can skip to the social media section towards the end with custom images we’ve already made for you.

Here are the 44 best philosophy quotes of all time!

Table of Contents

The 14 Most Important Philosophy Quotes From Ancient Philosophers

The 20 most famous philosophy quotes from modern philosophers, 10 philosophy quotes about stoicism from the earliest & most famous stoics, bonus: 4 thought-provoking quotes from people you didn’t even know were philosophers, more philosophy quotes, the 30 best philosophy quotes for sharing on social media, what is philosophy, what are the different schools of philosophy, other quote lists.

Did you know that philosophy was the original, first branch of science? Many of the other fields, from physics to chemistry to biology, and even mathematics and psychology, later split off from there. Geographically, philosophy emerged independently in 4 different areas: The West, ancient Arabia/Persia, India, and China.

Interestingly, only Western philosophy developed as a standalone discipline. In all the other areas, it was initially tied to religion. The ancient Greeks were also the first to think about how to live “the good life,” as they dubbed it. Starting as early as the 7th century BCE, Thales of Miletus , is considered to be the first philosopher.

Thankfully, a good amount of information about him and his peers survives to this date — including some of their writings. Here are 14 of the earliest, most important philosophy quotes from ancient philosophers:

1. “I know that I know nothing.” — Socrates

2. “Know thyself.” — Aristotle

3. “The heaviest penalty for declining to rule is to be ruled by someone inferior to yourself.” — Plato

4. “You could not step twice into the same river.” — Heraclitus

5. “The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be kindled.” — Plutarch

6. “He who is not satisfied with a little, is satisfied with nothing.” — Epicurus

7. “It is better either to be silent, or to say things of more value than silence. Sooner throw a pearl at hazard than an idle or useless word; and do not say a little in many words, but a great deal in a few.” — Pythagoras

8. “Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.” — Democritus

9. “I am a citizen of the world.” — Diogenes

10. “The most difficult thing in life is to know yourself.” — Thales

11. “Set thy heart upon thy work, but never on its reward. Work not for a reward, but never cease to do thy work.” — Vyasa

12. “However many holy words you read, however many you speak, what good will they do you if you do not act on upon them?” — Buddha

13. “The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” — Lao Tzu

14. “It does not matter how slowly you go as long as you do not stop.” — Confucius

Given how early philosophy began, you’d think we’d all be enlightened by now. Unfortunately, this pesky thing called “ the Dark Ages ” got in the way. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, primitive forces prevailed in the West. Humans were too busy bashing each other’s heads in to practice contemplation, make art, or push civilization forward with new technology. For the most part, at least.

It would take almost 1,000 years, until the Renaissance (French for “revival”) would start blooming out of Florence, Italy. This period later bloomed into the Age of Enlightenment , which is when modern philosophy really came into its own. From René Descartes to Immanuel Kant to Francis Bacon, some of the field’s true greats lived and worked in this period.

Thanks to the invention of the printing press in 1440, many of the best ideas from this era and beyond have been preserved. Here are 20 of them, all part of the most famous philosophy quotes of all time:

15. “Cogito ergo sum. I think; therefore I am.” — René Descartes

16. “That which does not kill us makes us stronger.” — Friedrich Nietzsche

17. “Knowledge is power.” — Sir Francis Bacon

18. “Sapere aude. Dare to think.” — Immanuel Kant

19. “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” — Jean-Jacques Rousseau

20. “Workers of the world, unite!” — Karl Marx

21. “Life can only be understood backwards; but it must be lived forwards.” — Søren Kierkegaard

22. “One ought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difficult for the two to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to be wanting.” — Niccolò Machiavelli

23. “Every man I meet is in some way my superior, and in that, I can learn of him.” — Ralph Waldo Emerson

24. “All of humanity’s problems stem from man’s inability to sit quietly in a room alone.” — Blaise Pascal

25. “Common sense is not so common.” — Voltaire

26. “In the depths of winter, I finally learned that within me there lay an invincible summer.” — Albert Camus

27. “Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing.” — John Stuart Mill

28. “Talent hits a target no one else can hit. Genius hits a target no one else can see.” — Arthur Schopenhauer

29. “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.” — Ludwig Wittgenstein

30. “Man is condemned to be free.” — Jean-Paul Sartre

31. “Human happiness and human satisfaction must ultimately come from within oneself.” — Dalai Lama XIV

32. “If you don’t know, the thing to do is not to get scared, but to learn.” — Ayn Rand

33. “One’s life has value so long as one attributes value to the life of others, by means of love, friendship, indignation and compassion.” — Simone de Beauvoir

34. “Beauty is no quality in things themselves: It exists merely in the mind which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty.” — David Hume

As you’ll find out in the explainer sections at the end of this list, philosophy is a bit like ice cream: We all have different tastes, but there’s a flavor for almost everyone. Not only can you pick from a plethora of differing philosophies, you can also adopt various theories for separate phases of your life. In fact, you can — and will probably have to — assemble the best bits from a variety of philosophies to come up with a list of guiding principles that works specifically for you .

At Four Minute Books, one of our favorite pools of philosophy to draw from is Stoicism . Why? It’s practical, pragmatic, and not overly complicated. It goes back to the original, first philosophers, and it’s a great tool set for real people, living in the real world.

Thanks to authors like Ryan Holiday , Stoicism is experiencing a revival right now. Here are 10 of the most quintessential ideas from the philosophy, sourced from 10 of the first ever Stoics (starting with Zeno, born 334 BCE, the first Stoic), sorted in order of when their originators lived:

35. “We have two ears and one mouth, so we should listen more than we speak.” — Zeno of Citium

36. “Fate guides the willing, but drags the unwilling.” — Cleanthes

37. “There could be no justice, unless there were also injustice; no courage, unless there were cowardice; no truth, unless there were falsehood.” — Chrysippus

38. “Cease to hope, and you will cease to fear.” — Hecato

39. “Let your desires be ruled by reason .” — Cicero

40. “I begin to speak only when I’m certain what I’ll say isn’t better left unsaid.” — Cato the Younger

41. “We suffer more often in imagination than in reality.” — Seneca

42. “If you accomplish something good with hard work, the labor passes quickly, but the good endures; if you do something shameful in pursuit of pleasure, the pleasure passes quickly, but the shame endures.” — Musonius Rufus

43. “Men are disturbed not by things but by the principles and notions which they form concerning things.” — Epictetus

44. “You have power over your mind — not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.” — Marcus Aurelius

Just as a little, fun bonus, here are 4 more quotes that will make you think. These come from unlikely philosophers, people you might not know as famous thinkers — or at all, for that matter. If you find them interesting, enjoy digging deeper into their lives and ideas via the links in the sources section!

45. “A wise man can learn more from a foolish question than a fool can learn from a wise answer.” — Bruce Lee

46. “To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all.” — Oscar Wilde

47. “I know it seems hard sometimes, but remember one thing: Through every dark night, there’s a bright day after that. So no matter how hard it gets, stick your chest out, keep your head up, and handle it.” — Tupac Shakur

48. “Hard choices, easy life. Easy choices, hard life.” — Jerzy Gregorek

• Via Wikipedia . Socrates paradoxical insight, as recorded by Plato, is one of the oldest, most well-known ideas in philosophy.
• Via Wikipedia . Aristotle was probably not the first person to say this, but it is likely he did say it and thus popularized the saying. There’s another popular variant floating around the web: “Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom.” That one, however, has no connection to Aristotle.
• As found in Francis Macdonald Cornford’s 1941 translation of The Republic .
• Via Wikiquote, as recorded by Plato and in surviving fragments of his writing in several variations. Some people speculate that the phrase “The only constant in life is change” goes back to this quote, but it only surfaced much later.
• Via Wikiquote , from De Auditu , a surviving essay, actually a contraction of the full, longer statement, “The correct analogy for the mind is not a vessel that needs filling, but wood that needs igniting — no more — and then it motivates one towards originality and instills the desire for truth.”
• Via Wikiquote , a surviving fragment.
• Via A Dictionary of Thoughts , a 1908 quote collection by Tryon Edwards.
• Via Lives of the Eminent Philosophers , a book by Diogenes Laërtius.
• Also via Lives of the Eminent Philosophers . The word “cosmopolitan” goes back to him. Representing the “Cynic” branch of philosophy (yet another word that goes back to him), he also once told  Alexander the Great to “ stand a little out of my sun .”
• Once again via Lives of the Eminent Philosophers . He is also a candidate for “Know thyself,” see #2.
• The various translations of the Bhagavad Gita usually use a different wording , but the idea stays the same: “You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions.”
• This great analysis by Fake Buddha Quotes confirms that, though the wording might be modernized, the essence of the actual quote is real: “Much though he recites the sacred texts, but acts not accordingly, that heedless man is like a cowherd who only counts the cows of others — he does not partake of the blessings of the holy life.”
• Via Stephen Mitchell’s translation of the Tao Te Ching .
• Confucius most likely originally used a metaphor to make this point, but  several translations close to this line exist.
• Via Wikipedia , from his book Discourse on the Method .
• From Twilight of the Idols . The original German wording? “Was mich nicht umbringt, macht mich stärker.”
• Via Wikipedia , from his book Meditationes Sacrae . This line is such a common, proverbial saying, it’s hard to believe it can be traced back to a single person, but it can. Hats off, sir!
• Via Wikipedia , this one goes back to Kant’s essential essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? Though first recorded by the ancient poet Horace in 20 BC in Latin, the phrase is inextricably linked to Kant and interpreted differently in a philosophical context. While it literally means “Dare to know,” the usually cited German variant, “Habe Mut, dich deines eigenen Verstandes zu bedienen” (“Have the courage to use your own reason”) makes more sense here.
• Via his book The Social Contract .
• Via Wikipedia , from The Communist Manifesto , a book he co-authored with Friedrich Engels.
• Via Wikiquote , from his journals and originally in Danish.
• From his famous, often misinterpreted book The Prince . For a summary, see here .
• Via Wikiquote .
• From Pensées , in some translations worded as, “All the unhappiness of men arises from one single fact, that they cannot stay quietly in their own chamber.”
• Via Wikiquote , from his Philosophical Dictionary , originally published in French.
• Via Wikiquote , from Return to Tipasa , an essay included in his book Summer .
• Via Oxford Reference , from his Inaugural Address at St Andrew’s, given in 1867.
• From The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, p. 391 , slightly contracted from the original “Talent is like the marksman who hits a target which others cannot reach; genius is like the marksman who hits a target, as far as which others cannot even see.”
• From his seminal and only book, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus .
• Via Wikiquote , from his book Being and Nothingness .
• Via Wikiquote , from his book The Path to Tranquility .
• As in Atlas Shrugged .
• Via Wikiquote , from her book The Coming of Age .
• From his essay Of the Standard of Taste .
• Via Lives of the Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius.
• From Epictetus’ Enchiridion . Various translations exist, such as: “O Destiny, wherever your decrees have fixed my station, I follow cheerfully; and, did I not, wicked and wretched, I must follow still.”
• Via New World Encyclopedia .
• As quoted by Seneca in his 5th Moral Letter to Lucilius .
• As written in his book De Officiis (On Duties) .
• Quoted by Plutarch in Parallel Lives .
• From his 13th Moral Letter to Lucilius .
• A surviving fragment .
• As found in his book Enchiridion .
• Supposedly from Meditations , this might be the most popular Marcus Aurelius quote, but it is hard to track down . Though several similar sentiments appear in Meditations , it is possible that it is from an older, lost translation, since there are so many different versions of the book.
• In a collection of his notes called Striking Thoughts . For more Bruce Lee quotes, see here .
• From The Soul of Man Under Socialism . More than a playwright and socialite, Wilde reflected deeply on life, especially after being imprisoned for “gross indecency with men.” Homosexual acts, even when consensual, were illegal at the time.
• Lyrics from Me Against the World . Shakur, too, turned to philosophy while in prison .
• As cited by Tim Ferriss in  his TED talk . You wouldn’t expect a lot of philosophy and poetry from a 4x weightlifting world champion and world record holder , but Jerzy is as thoughtful as he is fit.

If you want more quotes about philosophy, we have several great starting points for you. The best, of course, is to get your wisdom straight from the source. Instead of recommending just one specific book, however, we suggest you look at some of the top philosophy titles, then pick the one that seems most interesting to you. To that end, our snazzy PDF of the 7 best philosophy books ever might help! You can download it below.

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If you want to look at a wider selection of philosophy books, dive deeper into quotes of a specific philosophy, or learn more from a particular author, here are some other resources we’ve prepared for you and the next stage in your learning journey.

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Whichever of these intuitively draws you in, just tap away and keep learning!

If you want to share the quotes on our list, you can use the “highlight and share” feature, of course. However, we’ve also made some custom images just for you. All you have to do is tap and share! Some of them, we’ve optimized for Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Others are in Instagram’s old-school, square format. Finally, we have some for Pinterest’s vertical layout, too. Then again, nowadays, most formats work on most platforms.

Since none of the famous philosophers on this list dwell among us any longer, and most, if not all, of their works have entered the public domain, we decided to get creative with the background images for our quote images. We used the AI Stable Diffusion XL to make cool paintings, statues, and even group pictures of these world-famous philosophers. Hopefully, that’ll help bring their words to life for you and your friends. Happy sharing!

Oh, and if you want a ZIP-file of all quote images, including all backgrounds (and plenty of bonus, unused ones), you can download that here .

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Growing up, I associated philosophy with old men sitting in dusty libraries, trying to decipher ancient texts in extinct languages. I think most people do. That’s because the first definition of philosophy you find in the Oxford Dictionary suggests it is “the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.”

This academic discipline, however, has its roots in the second, much more important definition of philosophy: “a theory or attitude that acts as a guiding principle for behavior.” This is why the first philosophers even began studying knowledge, reality, and existence. Without their desire to lead better lives, the entire academic field of philosophy wouldn’t even exist!

In other words, philosophy is any concept, rule, or idea that helps you make decisions, adjust your behavior, and move forward in life.

All the theoretical talk about reason, values, reality, and language comes later. First and foremost, philosophy is about how to live a good life, right here, right now .

With that established, we can argue about what “good” means — and that’s where philosophical discourse begins. In the earliest days of philosophy, for example, some of the various camps included the Stoics, the Cynics, the Epicureans, and the Hedonists. Not unlike political parties, the first two disagreed with the latter two on what constitutes “a good life,” and even while the individual pairings agreed on the goal, they, too, disagreed on how to get there.

Since philosophy is a worldview, a way of life, there is no right or wrong, and there can be as many variations of it as there are people on this Earth.

Not smoking is a philosophy. Exercising three times a week is a philosophy. Bootstrapping your business is a philosophy. Whatever totality of rules and principles makes up your worldview, that is your philosophy. So while we can study different branches, at the end of the day, our own philosophy will be completely unique to us.

Philosophy is about finding a strong set of guiding principles and adjusting it to our own, modern, everyday life. Then, we must continuously update those principles as we go along and try to make the best choices we can in order to live up to the values we have chosen. That is philosophy, and that’s why “philosophizing” is one of the best ways we can spend our time.

Remember the ice cream analogy from the Stoic quotes section? Since people commonly disagree about which values are the best to aspire to, and which rules will us best live in accordance with them, many different schools of philosophy have formed over the centuries.

As a result, you and I can choose whatever flavor we like best! Some people prefer hedonism, which is rich and luxurious, like chocolate, while others enjoy Taoism, which is smooth and easygoing, like yogurt. Of course, as in any good ice cream shop, you can also mix and match flavors! You can add a bit of lemon with a big scoop of vanilla and only a dash of almond, or go all-in on three scoops of banana.

Wikipedia has two lists totaling several hundred different philosophies, so there is no shortage to choose from, be it to adopt a single, convincing philosophy wholesale or piece together your own from many sources.

While it might be tempting to just jump into the first philosophy that seems attractive to you at first sight, we highly recommend learning about a few different ones, then deciding. Chances are, you’ll have to change your philosophy many times throughout your life, and the more options you are equipped with, the better you can react to any shift in your personal circumstances.

Then again, with so many schools of philosophy out there, you don’t want to overwhelm yourself either. Here are 21 of the historically most important philosophies, each with a link to learn more about it. Take a look at a handful of them, then decide if and where you’d like to dive deeper.

• Cynicism , one of the earliest philosophies, postulates we should “live naturally,” meaning without possessions, free from obligations, and with as little as we need.
• Stoicism grew out of cynicism but was more practical, suggesting we should live virtuous lives, enjoy but not crave pleasure, and become indifferent to suffering.
• Hedonism opposes cynicism, seeking to maximize pleasure and minimize pain, be it through sensual pleasures or by helping others.
• Epicureanism is a less extreme form of hedonism with a stronger focus on helping others, a simple life, and moderate but sustainable pleasure.
• Skepticism questions knowledge in various fields and sometimes even the idea that we can know anything for sure itself.
• Nihilism claims life is inherently meaningless and that nothing has value, so it doesn’t matter what we do at all.
• Absurdism proposes life is absurd and the universe is irrational, and that we are in conflict with these forces. This is our main struggle as humans.
• Existentialism tries to fix nihilism by offering various ways of creating our own “meaning of life.”
• Realism believes that various objects and ideas exist independently of our ability to perceive them.
• Relativism suggests nothing in life is absolute and that things and situations depend on “the eye of the beholder.”
• Pragmatism concerns itself less with thought and more with action, saying philosophy itself is most useful when practically applied to the real world.
• Rationalism claims all knowledge comes from reasoning, and that thinking should be one of our primary activities.
• Positivism holds the opposite belief, namely that all knowledge must come from evidence.
• Empiricism wants to see evidence one can perceive with his own 5 senses before it agrees to anything.
• Determinism rejects free will, asserting everything that happens has a prior, predetermined cause.
• Marxism criticizes capitalism and offers alternative solutions for a productive society.
• Objectivism , created by Ayn Rand, sees humans as heroes of reason with happiness as their main goal and “productive achievement” as their means of attaining it. 
• Utilitarianism suggests we should aim to maximize the happiness and wellbeing of as many people as we can.
• Buddhism sees desire as the primary cause of suffering and hopes to cure it with meditation.
• Confucianism admonishes us to behave well, listen to our seniors and superiors, prioritize our families, and thus live ethically.
• Taoism is a “go with the flow” philosophy, calling on us to be humble, frugal, and spontaneous.

As you can see, many philosophies directly oppose one another. Some are less extreme versions of others. Finally, some blend different ideas together. Learn more about the ones that fascinate you the most, then decide for yourself which most align with your personal goals and values.

That’s it for our list of the best philosophy quotes of all time. Do you have a favorite? Think we missed an important one? Let us know on Twitter . We’re always glad to receive feedback and improve our work. Hope you learned something new today, and until next time!

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Last Updated on September 20, 2023

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115 Philosophy Quotes From The Best Philosophers

By Maxime Lagacé

Maxime is the founder of WisdomQuotes. He has been collecting quotes since 2004. His goal? To help you develop a calm and peaceful mind. Learn more about him on his about page .

Here are 115 of the best philosophy quotes that will teach you more than a philosophy class.

What’s the goal?

To make you think deeply, but most importantly, to help you find a new philosophy of life from these great philosophers.

You’ll learn from Einstein, Goethe, Aristotle, Nietzsche, Thoreau, MLK, and many more.

Philosophy is the science of truth. Aristotle

Science is what you know. Philosophy is what you don’t know. Bertrand Russell

Don’t explain your philosophy. Embody it. Epictetus

The philosopher’s product is his life . Friedrich Nietzsche

My advice to you is not to inquire why or whither, but just enjoy your ice cream while it’s on your plate – that’s my philosophy. Thornton Wilder

Philosophy teaches us to act, not to speak. Seneca

We have philosophy professors, but no philosophers. Henry David Thoreau

Learn to ask of all actions, “Why are they doing that?”, starting with your own. Marcus Aurelius

To live without philosophizing is in truth the same as keeping the eyes closed without attempting to open them. René Descartes

Philosophy, n. A route of many roads leading from nowhere to nothing. Ambrose Bierce

History is philosophy teaching by examples. Thucydides

Philosophy is at once the most sublime and the most trivial of human pursuits. William James

Philosophy is trying to make sense of what doesn’t. Maxime Lagacé

Astonishment is the root of philosophy. Paul Tillich

The three great things of life are: good health; work; and a philosophy of life. Jack London

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The Best Philosophy Quotes

Every man bears the whole stamp of the human condition. Michel de Montaigne

Be a philosopher but, amid all your philosophy be still a man. David Hume

I study myself more than any other subject. That is my metaphysics, that is my physics. Michel de Montaigne

Philosophy is man’s expression of curiosity about everything and his attempt to make sense of the world primarily through his intellect. Alan Watts

We are too weak to discover the truth by reason alone. Augustine of Hippo

Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language. Ludwig Wittgenstein

A little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion. Francis Bacon

For me, I am driven by two main philosophies: know more today about the world than I knew yesterday and lessen the suffering of others. You’d be surprised how far that gets you. Neil deGrasse Tyson

We study science to learn how to get what we want. We study philosophy to know what to want in the first place. Naval Ravikant

My philosophy is: It’s none of my business what people say of me and think of me. I am what I am and I do what I do. I expect nothing and accept everything. And it makes life so much easier. Anthony Hopkins

There is only one thing a philosopher can be relied upon to do, and that is to contradict other philosophers. William James

Philosophy consists very largely of one philosopher arguing that all others are jackasses. He usually proves it, and I should add that he also usually proves that he is one himself. H. L. Mencken

There is no good or bad without us, there is only perception. There is the event itself and the story we tell ourselves about what it means. Ryan Holiday

Philosophy is itself the disease for which it pretends to be the cure: the wise man does not pursue wisdom but lives his life, and therein precisely does his wisdom lie. Bruce Lee

Just as eating cow meat doesn’t turn you into a cow, studying philosophy doesn’t make you wiser. Nassim Nicholas Taleb

My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute. Ayn Rand

The best philosophy of life I’ve found is this: just keep going. Maxime Lagacé

The point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as not to seem worth stating, and to end with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it. Bertrand Russell ( The Philosophy of Logical Atomism , Amazon book)

What is the first business of one who practices philosophy? To get rid of self-conceit. For it is impossible for anyone to begin to learn that which he thinks he already knows. Epictetus

A philosopher who is not taking part in discussions is like a boxer who never goes into the ring. Ludwig Wittgenstein

A wise man does not converse for the sake of displaying his own intelligence. James Pierce

To philosophize is to learn how to die or to rise to divinity. Karl Jaspers

Real philosophy is to learn to see the world again. Maurice Merleau-Ponty

Part 2. Philosophy Quotes That Are…

The most famous philosophy quotes.

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Her philosophy is carpe diem for herself and laissez faire for others. F. Scott Fitzgerald

I do not at all believe in human freedom in the philosophical sense. Everybody acts not only under external compulsion but also in accordance with inner necessity. Albert Einstein

I must study politics and war that my sons may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy. John Adams

People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care. Theodore Roosevelt

My condition is not unhappiness, but it is also not happiness, not indifference, not weakness, not fatigue, not another interest – so what is it then? Franz Kafka

Music is a higher revelation than all wisdom and philosophy. Music is the electrical soil in which the spirit lives, thinks and invents. Ludwig van Beethoven

To have no time for philosophy is to be a true philosopher. Blaise Pascal

My philosophy is that not only are you responsible for your life, but doing the best at this moment puts you in the best place for the next moment. Oprah Winfrey

This is patently absurd; but whoever wishes to become a philosopher must learn not to be frightened by absurdities. Bertrand Russell

In the eyes of dialectical philosophy, nothing is established for all times, nothing is absolute or sacred. Karl Marx

How slow men are in matters when they believe they have time and how swift they are when necessity drives them to it. Niccolò Machiavelli

Anyone who studies present and ancient affairs will easily see how in all cities and all peoples there still exist, and have always existed, the same desires and passions. Niccolò Machiavelli

There will be no end to the troubles of states, or of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become philosophers, and political power and philosophy thus come into the same hands. Plato

There is something of a civil war going on within all of our lives. There is a recalcitrant South of our soul revolting against the North of our soul. And there is this continual struggle within the very structure of every individual life. Martin Luther King Jr

Philosophy triumphs easily over past evils and future evils; but present evils triumph over it. François de la Rochefoucauld

Broadly speaking, human beings may be divided into three classes: those who are toiled to death, those who are worried to death, and those are bored to death. Winston Churchill

As I grow older, I pay less attention to what people say. I just watch what they do. Andrew Carnegie

By all means marry; if you get a good wife, you’ll become happy; if you get a bad one, you’ll become a philosopher. Socrates

Poetry is something more philosophic and serious than history; for poetry speaks of what is universal, history of what is particular. Aristotle

To live alone one must be an animal or a God – says Aristotle. There is yet a third case: one must be both – a philosopher. Friedrich Nietzsche

If a man’s good for nothing else, he can at least teach philosophy. William James

But people themselves alter so much, that there is something new to be observed in them for ever. Jane Austen

A good philosopher makes a bad citizen. Napoleon Bonaparte

Related : What is Philosophy for? (5-minute YouTube video)

Inspirational Philosophy Quotes

Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point, however, is to change it. Karl Marx

Practice the philosophy of continuous improvement. Get a little bit better every single day. Brian Tracy

I think everybody should study ants. They have an amazing four-part philosophy. Never give up, look ahead, stay positive and do all you can. Jim Rohn

Behavior is a mirror in which everyone shows his image. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

The endpoint of philosophy is childlike wonder. James Pierce ( Source )

It surprises me how disinterested we are today about things like physics, space, the universe and philosophy of our existence, our purpose, our final destination. It’s a crazy world out there. Be curious. Stephen Hawking

To be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts, nor even to found a school…it is to solve some of the problems of life, not only theoretically, but practically. Henry David Thoreau

To teach how to live without certainty, and yet without being paralysed by hesitation, is perhaps the chief thing that philosophy, in our age, can still do for those who study it. Bertrand Russell

The perfection of wisdom, and the end of true philosophy is to proportion our wants to our possessions, our ambitions to our capacities, we will then be a happy and a virtuous people. Mark Twain

Jokes of the proper kind, properly told, can do more to enlighten questions of politics, philosophy, and literature than any number of dull arguments. Isaac Asimov

This is my simple religion. There is no need for temples; no need for complicated philosophy. Our own brain, our own heart is our temple; the philosophy is kindness. 14th Dalai Lama

No one should postpone the study of philosophy when he is young, nor should he wear of it when he becomes mature, for the search for mental health is never untimely or out of season. Epicurus

To say that the time to study philosophy has not yet arrived or that it is past is like saying that the time for happiness is not yet at hand, or is no longer present. Epicurus

The ones who let go are the ones who stay sane. Maxime Lagacé

Whatever has value in our world now does not have value in itself, according to its nature – nature is always value-less, but has been given value at some time, as a present – and it was we who gave and bestowed it. Friedrich Nietzsche (The Gay Science)

Intuition does not in itself amount to knowledge, yet cannot be disregarded by philosophers and psychologists. Corliss Lamont

There are three classes of men; the retrograde, the stationary and the progressive. Johann Kaspar Lavater

Always look at what people do, not who they are. Gloria Steinem ( My Life on the Road , Amazon book)

Deep Philosophy Quotes

We are biological machines programmed to survive and replicate. Happy is anti-evolution. Naval Ravikant

To be human is above all to be sensitive. Alan Watts

It’s ok to not have a strong opinion on everything. Zuby

Of all people only those are at leisure who make time for philosophy, only they truly live. Not satisfied to merely keep good watch over their own days, they annex every age to their own. Seneca

A serious and good philosophical work could be written consisting entirely of jokes. Ludwig Wittgenstein

A fool’s brain digests philosophy into folly, science into superstition, and art into pedantry. Hence University education. George Bernard Shaw

The things which philosophy attempts to teach by reasoning, poverty forces us to practice. Diogenes

Desire, fundamentally, is a response to a feeling of incompleteness. James Pierce

Unexamined desires run rampant throughout the life of the average person. With these desires comes pain. James Pierce

A human being wants something that will fill the holes he feels within himself. James Pierce

We like explanations, we like theories, we indulge in speculative philosophy and we are carried away by all that. Jiddu Krishnamurti

Experience has shown, and a true philosophy will always show, that a vast, perhaps the larger portion of the truth arises from the seemingly irrelevant. Edgar Allan Poe

The right philosophy is the one that will make you move forward. Maxime Lagacé

Are you actually living or is it the past living in the present? Jiddu Krishnamurti

It’s touching that almost everyone you meet, however outwardly accomplished, craves reassurance you like them and think they’re doing OK. Alain de Botton

There is no statement so absurd that no philosopher will make it. Cicero

There are no uninteresting things, only uninterested people. G.K. Chesterton

Related : Six Ideas From Eastern Philosophy (8-minute YouTube video by The School of Life)

Wise Philosophy Quotes

Read philosophy. It is not for the old, but for the young to learn how to live. Thibaut

Inner peace is the final stage of philosophy. Maxime Lagacé

To become a philosopher, start by walking very slowly. Nassim Nicholas Taleb

You know you have influence when people start noticing your absence more than the presence of others. Nassim Nicholas Taleb

Loyalty to a petrified opinion never yet broke a chain or freed a human soul. Mark Twain

Absurdity is one of the most human things about us: a manifestation of our most advanced and interesting characteristics. Thomas Nagel ( Mortal Questions , Amazon book)

The strongest intellectual foundation is built upon science, math, and philosophy, as they are the search for universal truths. Naval Ravikant

The only people we can think of as normal are those we don’t yet know very well. Alain de Botton

There may be significant things to learn about people by looking at what annoys them most. Alain de Botton

The desire to belong often overpowers the desire to improve. James Clear

Generally speaking, the errors in religion are dangerous; those in philosophy only ridiculous. David Hume

The hunger for facile wisdom is the root of all false philosophy. George Santanaya

Related : EASTERN PHILOSOPHY – The Buddha (6-minute YouTube video by The School of Life)

Part 3. Conclusion

The philosophy of one century is the common sense of the next. Henry Ward Beecher

If you live long enough, you become a philosopher because you start trying to solve the big problems in your life. The big problems are the old ones — the ones we’ve been trying to solve since the beginning: How do I stay happy? How do I become healthy? How do I become wealthy? How do I raise the family I want? Naval Ravikant

As a lover of quotes, psychology, and philosophy myself, I’ve always been fascinated by how the old philosophers viewed life and how they dealt with it.

It seems a lost art nowadays to ponder deep philosophical and existential questions.

Happily, we still have access to those beautiful words.

In a sense, it’s reassuring and guiding to know how people like Nietzsche or Einstein approached their lives and struggles.

Like Buddha said, life is suffering and without a way of life and a philosophy of life, it can be hard to navigate it.

Further Readings

• Topic: Life
• 75 Words of Wisdom From The Best Minds (Ever)
• 100 Decision Quotes For Better Decision Making (And Life)
• 77 Life Lessons Quotes (To Learn And Grow)
• Marcus Aurelius — How to Live A Good Life (6-minute YouTube video)
• 205 Philosophical Questions – A huge list of thought-provoking questions (conversationstartersworld.com)
• 73 Life Is Short Quotes To Help You Live To The Fullest
• 57 Life Goes On Quotes That Will Move You
• 21 Life-Changing Questions To Ask Yourself Today

Hope you enjoyed these beautiful philosophy quotes. If you did, please share them with a friend today!

What’s your favorite philosophy quote? And remember: words can transform your life, if you find the right ones.

Table Of Contents

Part 1 Top 15 Images Best Quotes

Part 2 Quotes That ARE Famous Inspirational Deep Wise

Part 3 Conclusion

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100 Philosophical Quotes from History’s Greatest Thinkers

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It's completely normal to have a whirlwind of questions when faced with a difficult situation. ‘Why did it happen?' ‘What could I have done differently?' ‘Will I ever get over it?'

However, it's important to remember that we may not always find the answers we’re looking for. And that strength may need to be found in other places, such as these philosophical quotes.

Unlike most of our gadgets, life doesn’t come with a How-To guide, or a Fix-It manual to download. But we can find solace in the wisdom and experiences of those who walked before us, such as Aristotle and Socrates.

Their words remind us that we're not alone; that we're doing OK. And sometimes, that’s all we need to be able to look towards a brighter future.

Table of Contents

Why Do the Great Philosophers Play Such an Important Part in Today’s World?

Sharing knowledge is a beautiful way to connect with other people. Whether it's teaching our kids the secrets of the world, or passing on some valuable information to our friends, there's something truly heartwarming about sharing our knowhow.

And, it's through this exchange of information that we collectively move forward in life. From the basics of tying shoelaces to discovering the mystery spice that adds that wow factor to our slow-cooked Chilli, every piece of information shared enriches our lives.

So, it's no wonder that the wisdom of the great philosophers has left an undeniable mark on humanity, shaping our thoughts and actions in ways that we might not even realize.

From Lao Tzu's emphasis on harmony and balance to Friedrich Nietzsche's radical philosophies which challenge us to embrace our individuality, their words can help us to unearth a deeper understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

They inspire us to question , ponder, and evolve, igniting a passion for exploration and discovery.

That doesn't mean we'll always find the answers we’re searching for. But we can find comfort and acceptance. We can find light in the darkness. And we can find a way forward, no matter how impossible it may, at times, feel.

The wisdom of these, and many more great philosophers, continues to shape our world in the most extraordinary of ways. Their words echo through history, inspiring individuals and shaping societies from around the globe.

And, as we navigate the difficulties of our modern world, we can embrace and apply these timeless philosophies in our daily lives.

We can draw strength and guidance from the words in these philosophical quotes. And strive to create a better world for ourselves and future generations.

100 Philosophical Quotes from History's Greatest Thinkers

• “To live is to suffer, to survive is to find some meaning in the suffering.” – Friedrich Nietzsche
• “There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance” – Socrates
• “Hardship often prepares an ordinary person for an extraordinary destiny.” – Christopher Markus
• “Happiness is not something ready-made. It comes from your own actions.” – the Dalai Lama
• “Well, I must endure the presence of a few caterpillars if I wish to become acquainted with the butterflies.” – Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
• “What lies behind you and what lies in front of you, pales in comparison to what lies inside of you.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson
• “Every man is a creature of the age in which he lives and few are able to raise themselves above the ideas of the time.” – Voltaire
• “Man is a mystery. It needs to be unraveled, and if you spend your whole life unraveling it, don’t say that you’ve wasted time. I am studying that mystery because I want to be a human being.” – Fyodor Dostoevsky

Man is a mystery. It needs to be unraveled, and if you spend your whole life unraveling it, don’t say that you’ve wasted time. I am studying that mystery because I want to be a human being.” – Fyodor Dostoevsky

• “Life is never made unbearable by circumstances, but only by lack of meaning and purpose .” – Victor Frankl
• “For every minute you are angry you lose sixty seconds of happiness.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson
• “The highest activity a human being can attain is learning for understanding, because to understand is to be free.” – Baruch Spinoza
• “Action may not always bring happiness, but there is no happiness without action.” – William James
• “You have power over your mind – not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “The only way to deal with an unfree world is to become so absolutely free that your very existence is an act of rebellion.” – Albert Camus
• “I started my life with a single absolute: that the world was mine to shape in the image of my highest values and never to be given up to a lesser standard, no matter how long or hard the struggle.” – Ayn Rand
• “If you are lonely when you're alone, you are in bad company.” – Jean-Paul Sartre

• “Dwell on the beauty of life. Watch the stars, and see yourself running with them.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “Happiness is like a butterfly; the more you chase it, the more it will elude you, but if you turn your attention to other things, it will come and sit softly on your shoulder.” – Henry David Thoreau
• “Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.” – Aristotle
• “The mind is furnished with ideas by experience alone” – John Locke
• “The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science.” – Albert Einstein
• “We live in the best of all possible worlds” – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
• “The flame that burns Twice as bright burns half as long.” – Lao Tzu
• “It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson

It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson

• “Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “Let come what comes, let go what goes. See what remains.” – Ramana Maharshi
• “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed, citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” – Margaret Mead
• “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.” – Aristotle
• “One, remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Two, never give up work. Work gives you meaning and purpose and life is empty without it. Three, if you are lucky enough to find love, remember it is there and don’t throw it away.” – Stephen Hawking
• “Never let your sense of morals prevent you from doing what is right.” – Isaac Asimov
• “You always admire what you really don't understand.” – Blaise Pascal
• “Without music, life would be a mistake.” – Friedrich Nietzsche

• “He who has health, has hope; and he who has hope, has everything.” – Thomas Carlyle
• “The reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man.” – George Bernard Shaw
• “A truth that’s told with bad intent. Beats all the lies you can invent.” – William Blake
• “No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience” – John Locke
• “Maybe everyone can live beyond what they’re capable of.” – Markus Zusak
• “I cannot teach anybody anything. I can only make them think” – Socrates
• “Morality is not the doctrine of how we may make ourselves happy, but of how we may make ourselves worthy of happiness.” – Immanuel Kant
• “We are addicted to our thoughts. We cannot change anything if we cannot change our thinking.” – Santosh Kalwar
• “Liberty consists in doing what one desires” – John Stuart Mill
• “Whoever will be free must make himself free. Freedom is no fairy gift to fall into a man's lap. What is freedom? To have the will to be responsible for one's self.” – Max Stirner

Whoever will be free must make himself free. Freedom is no fairy gift to fall into a man's lap. What is freedom? To have the will to be responsible for one's self.” – Max Stirner

• “A concept is a brick. It can be used to build a courthouse of reason. Or it can be thrown through the window.” – Gilles Deleuze
• “Life is really simple, but we insist on making it complicated.” – Confucius
• “Without struggle, no progress and no result. Every breaking of habit produces a change in the machine.” – George Gurdjieff
• “No! Try not. Do, or do not. There is no try.” – George Lucas
• “Things alter for the worse spontaneously, if they be not altered for the better designedly” – Francis Bacon
• “It is not death that a man should fear, but he should fear never beginning to live.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance.” – Aristotle
• “Out of difficulties grow miracles.” – Jean de la Bruyere
• “Devotion to the truth is the hallmark of morality; there is no greater, nobler, more heroic form of devotion than the act of a man who assumes the responsibility of thinking.” – Ayn Rand
• “The journey is what brings us happiness not the destination.” – Dan Millman

• “Our life is what our thoughts make it.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit” – Aristotle
• “The seed of suffering in you may be strong, but don’t wait until you have no more suffering before allowing yourself to be happy.” – Thich Nhat Hanh
• “It may be important to great thinkers to examine the world, to explain and despise it. But I think it is only important to love the world, not to despise it, not for us to hate each other, but to be able to regard the world and ourselves and all beings with love, admiration, and respect.” – Hermann Hesse
• A healthy social life is found only when, in the mirror of each soul, the whole community finds its reflection, and when, in the whole community, the virtue of each one is living.” – Rudolf Steine r
• “If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things.” – René Descartes
• “Life must be understood backward. But it must be lived forward ” – Søren Kierkegaard
• “Even the finest sword plunged into salt water will eventually rust.” – Sun Tzu
• “The past has no power over the present moment.” – Eckhart Tolle
• “Don’t just say you have read books. Show that through them you have learned to think better, to be a more discriminating and reflective person. Books are the training weights of the mind. They are very helpful, but it would be a bad mistake to suppose that one has made progress simply by having internalized their contents.” – Epictetus

Don’t just say you have read books. Show that through them you have learned to think better, to be a more discriminating and reflective person. Books are the training weights of the mind. They are very helpful, but it would be a bad mistake to suppose that one has made progress simply by having internalized their contents.” – Epictetus

• “If ignorance is bliss, there should be more happy people.” – Victor Cousin
• “We have two ears and one mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we speak.” – Epictetus
• “If someone is able to show me that what I think or do is not right, I will happily change, for I seek the truth, by which no one was ever truly harmed. It is the person who continues in his self-deception and ignorance who is harmed.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “I never found beauty in longing for the impossible and never found the possible to be beyond my reach.” – Ayn Rand
• “The mind is not a vessel to be filled but a fire to be kindled.” – Plutarch
• “The more you struggle to live, the less you live. Give up the notion that you must be sure of what you are doing. Instead, surrender to what is real within you, for that alone is sure….you are above everything distressing.” – Baruch Spinoza
• “The greatest use of a life is to spend it on something that will outlast it.” – William James
• “Seize the moments of happiness, love and be loved! That is the only reality in the world, all else is folly. It is the one thing we are interested in here.” – Leo Tolstoy
• “One’s life has value so long as one attributes value to the life of others, by means of love, friendship, and compassion” – Simone de Beauvoir
• “The energy of the mind is the essence of life.” – Aristotle

• “History is Philosophy teaching by examples” – Thucydides
• “Words do not express thoughts very well; everything immediately becomes a little different, a little distorted, a little foolish. And yet it also pleases me and seems right that what is of value and wisdom of one man seems nonsense to another.” – Siddhartha Gautama
•  “Happiness is the feeling that power increases — that resistance is being overcome.” – Friedrich Nietzsche
• “Nothing great in the world has ever been accomplished without passion.” – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
• “You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation” – Plato
• “Life is not a problem to be solved but a reality to be experienced.” – SorenKierkegaard
• “The only thing I know is that I know nothing” – Socrates
• “I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong” – Bertrand Russell
• “There are only two ways to live your life. One is as though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though everything is a miracle.” – Albert Einstein
• “Life is short and we have never too much time for gladdening the hearts of those who are travelling the dark journey with us. Oh be swift to love, make haste to be kind.” – Henri Frederic Amiel

Life is short and we have never too much time for gladdening the hearts of those who are travelling the dark journey with us. Oh be swift to love, make haste to be kind.” – Henri Frederic Amiel

• “ Self-respect is the fruit of discipline; the sense of dignity grows with the ability to say no to oneself.” – Abraham Joshua Heschel
• “The greater the difficulty, the more glory in surmounting it” – Epicurus
• “If men were born free, they would, so long as they remained free, form no conception of good and evil” – Baruch Spinoza
• “Happiness radiates like the fragrance from a flower and draws all good things towards you.” – Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
• “The secret of happiness is: Find something more important than you are and dedicate your life to it.” – Daniel Dennett
• “The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.” – Marcus Aurelius
• “I think therefore I am” (“Cogito, ergo sum”) – René Descartes
• “Freedom is secured not by the fulfilling of one’s desires, but by the removal of desire.” – Epictetus
• “A day without laughter is a day wasted.” – Nicolas Chamfort

• “The unexamined life is not worth living” – Socrates
• “What is rational is actual and what is actual is rational” – G. W. F. Hege
• “Those who know do not speak. Those who speak do not know.” – Lao Tsu
•  “Rules for happiness: something to do, someone to love, something to hope for.” – Immanuel Kant
• “It is one thing to show a man that he is in error, and another to put him in possession of truth” – John Locke
• “When you arise in the morning think of what a privilege it is to be alive, to think, to enjoy, to love …” – Marcus Aurelius
• “Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains” – Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• “We are too weak to discover the truth by reason alone” – St. Augustine
• “I can, therefore I am.” – Simone Weil

Final Thoughts on History’s Greatest Thinkers

History is undeniably filled with brilliant minds who have shaped the world with their philosophical ideas. Their ideas on morality, ethics, and the nature of reality continue to challenge and inspire us today.

They have paved the way for future generations to question, analyze, and seek truth. And their legacy will forever be etched in history, reminding us of the power of critical thinking and the pursuit of knowledge.

For more inspirational quotes, be sure to check out these blogs:

• 77 Determination Quotes to Inspire Your Persistence
• 65 Positive Affirmations to Overcome Fears in Life
• 100 Making Progress Quotes to Help You Succeed

Finally, if you want to use these quotes to make a lasting change to your life, then check out and recite these 57 affirmations for success .

125 Thought-Provoking Philosophical Quotes to Inspire You

Have you ever found yourself marveling at the ideas of a famous philosopher? If you did, we have a very special treat for you. In the following, you can find some of the most important philosophical quotes from the most famous philosophers of all time. Enjoy reading! P.S.: Be sure not to miss our selection of insightful Socrates quotes .

Ever since the dawn of civilization, there have always been curious individuals who were eager to investigate the central questions about existence. Their ambition to study various aspects of life to gain a deeper understanding led to the earliest traces of philosophical thoughts and led to the pursuit of wisdom.

“Don’t explain your philosophy. Embody it.” Epictetus

Out of the quest for knowledge slowly emerged Philosophy, which is Greek for “love of wisdom.” Over time, the various philosophical methods such as questioning, articulating problems, rational argument, and critical discussion became more and more refined.

These philosophical quotes are filled with wisdom about existence

The beauty of philosophy is that it poses thought-provoking questions and inspires us to think deeply about ourselves and life in general. Even more so, pondering about the ideas and perspectives outlined by different philosophers can help us to gain a better understanding of the world we live in.

Among the vast sea of philosophical thoughts, it can be quite difficult to identify the pearls of wisdom and the hidden gems. To help you save yourself a lot of time and energy, we have collected for you some of the most inspirational thoughts of some of the greatest philosophers that ever walked this earth.

125 Thought-Provoking Philosophical Quotes

Breaking complex subjects down and condensing their essence within a couple of sentences is a great art. Thanks to their exceptional observational skills, many philosophers have been able to do exactly that. As such, they have been able to deliver potent arguments and observations about many aspects of life.

The following collection of thought-provoking and inspirational philosophical quotes is an excellent starting place to expose yourself with liberating and sometimes even mindbending philosophies. We hope you enjoy reading this collection of hand-selected wisdom by some of the finest philosophers of all time.

Here’s our selection of the most important philosophical quotes

“Hardship often prepares an ordinary person for an extraordinary destiny.” Christopher Markus

“There is no easy way from the earth to the stars.” Seneca

“Well, I must endure the presence of a few caterpillars if I wish to become acquainted with the butterflies.” Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

“Every man is a creature of the age in which he lives and few are able to raise themselves above the ideas of the time.” Voltaire

You have power over your mind – not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.” Marcus Aurelius

“Life is never made unbearable by circumstances, but only by lack of meaning and purpose.” Victor Frankl

“The highest activity a human being can attain is learning for understanding, because to understand is to be free.” Baruch Spinoza

“Be like water making its way through cracks. Do not be assertive, but adjust to the object, and you shall find a way around or through it. If nothing within you stays rigid, outward things will disclose themselves. Empty your mind, be formless. Shapeless, like water. If you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle and it becomes the bottle. You put it in a teapot, it becomes the teapot. Now, water can flow or it can crash. Be water, my friend.” Bruce Lee

“I started my life with a single absolute: that the world was mine to shape in the image of my highest values and never to be given up to a lesser standard, no matter how long or hard the struggle.” Ayn Rand

“The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science.” Albert Einstein

Do you want even more philosophical quotes? Read on…

“Life must be understood backward. But it must be lived forward .” Søren Kierkegaard

“Man is a mystery. It needs to be unraveled, and if you spend your whole life unraveling it, don’t say that you’ve wasted time. I am studying that mystery because I want to be a human being.” Fyodor Dostoevsky

“The flame that burns Twice as bright burns half as long.” Lao Tzu

“Dwell on the beauty of life. Watch the stars, and see yourself running with them.” Marcus Aurelius

“Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.” Aristotle

“The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men.” Plato

“It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude.” Ralph Waldo Emerson

“It is one thing to show a man that he is in error, and another to put him in possession of truth.” John Locke

“The only thing I know is that I know nothing.” Socrates

“Never let your sense of morals prevent you from doing what is right.” Isaac Asimov

“The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.” Marcus Aurelius

“Freedom is secured not by the fulfilling of one’s desires, but by the removal of desire.” Epictetus

“Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.” Marcus Aurelius

“The greater the difficulty, the more glory in surmounting it.” Epicurus

“The function of prayer is not to influence God, but rather to change the nature of the one who prays.” Søren Kierkegaard

“Happiness is the highest good.” Aristotle

“The brave man is he who overcomes not only his enemies but his pleasures.” Democritus

“Without music, life would be a mistake.” Friedrich Nietzsche

“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed, citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” Margaret Mead

“One, remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Two, never give up work. Work gives you meaning and purpose and life is empty without it. Three, if you are lucky enough to find love, remember it is there and don’t throw it away.” Stephen Hawking

Philosophical quotes like this are full of wisdom

“Those who know do not speak. Those who speak do not know.” Lao Tsu

“When you arise in the morning think of what a privilege it is to be alive, to think, to enjoy, to love …” Marcus Aurelius

“Liberty consists in doing what one desires.” John Stuart Mill

“Wise men speak because they have something to say; fools because they have to say something.” Plato

“Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.” Ludwig Wittgenstein

“Simplicity, patience, compassion. These three are your greatest treasures. Simple in actions and thoughts, you return to the source of being. Patient with both friends and enemies, you accord with the way things are. Compassionate toward yourself, you reconcile all beings in the world.” Lao Tzu

“Good and evil, reward and punishment, are the only motives to a rational creature.” John Locke

“I was within and without, simultaneously enchanted and repelled by the inexhaustible variety of life.” Fitzgerald F. Scott

“All that is necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing.” Edmund Burke

“The reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man.” George Bernard Shaw

“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.” Aristotle

“A truth that’s told with bad intent Beats all the lies you can invent.” William Blake

“We are too weak to discover the truth by reason alone.” St. Augustine

“Maybe everyone can live beyond what they’re capable of.” Markus Zusak

“Happiness lies in virtuous activity, and perfect happiness lies in the best activity, which is contemplative.” Aristotle

“I cannot teach anybody anything. I can only make them think” Socrates

“Morality is not the doctrine of how we may make ourselves happy, but of how we may make ourselves worthy of happiness.” Immanuel Kant

“We are addicted to our thoughts. We cannot change anything if we cannot change our thinking.” Santosh Kalwar

“It is wrong always, everywhere and for everyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.” W. K. Clifford

“To choose doubt as a philosophy of life is akin to choosing immobility as a means of transportation.” Yann Martel

“I don’t know why we are here, but I’m pretty sure it is not in order to enjoy ourselves.” Ludwig Wittgenstein

“A concept is a brick. It can be used to build a courthouse of reason. Or it can be thrown through the window.” Gilles Deleuze

“One cannot conceive anything so strange and so implausible that it has not already been said by one philosopher or another.” René Descartes

“Life is really simple, but we insist on making it complicated.” Confucius

“Even while they teach, men learn.” Seneca

These philosophical quotes are on fire

“Love is the extremely difficult realization that something other than oneself is real.” Iris Murdoch

“Leisure is the mother of philosophy.” Thomas Hobbes

“No! Try not. Do, or do not. There is no try.” George Lucas

“Time is a game played beautifully by children.” Heraclitus

“The mind is furnished with ideas by experience alone.” John Locke

“This is my simple religion. No need for temples. No need for complicated philosophy. Your own mind, your own heart is the temple. Your philosophy is simple kindness.” Dalai Lama XIV

“Man is condemned to be free.” Jean-Paul Sartre

“The journey is what brings us happiness not the destination.” Dan Millman

“All is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.” Voltaire

“It is not death that a man should fear, but he should fear never beginning to live.” Marcus Aurelius

Here are even more quotes about philosophy for you

“I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong.” Bertrand Russell

“The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance.” Aristotle

“He who thinks great thoughts, often makes great errors.” Martin Heidegger

“I don’t know why we are here, but I’m pretty sure that it is not in order to enjoy ourselves.” Ludwig Wittgenstein

“A little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion.” Sir Francis Bacon

“Devotion to the truth is the hallmark of morality; there is no greater, nobler, more heroic form of devotion than the act of a man who assumes the responsibility of thinking.” Ayn Rand

“Things alter for the worse spontaneously, if they be not altered for the better designedly.” Francis Bacon

“To do as one would be done by, and to love one’s neighbor as oneself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.” John Stuart Mill

“Whatever is reasonable is true, and whatever is true is reasonable.” G. W. F. Hegel

“This is patently absurd; but whoever wishes to become a philosopher must learn not to be frightened by absurdities.” Bertrand Russell

“Our life is what our thoughts make it.” Marcus Aurelius

“You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation.” Plato

“Science is organized knowledge. Wisdom is organized life.” Will Durant

“There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.” Socrates

“Don’t only practice your art, but force your way into its secrets, for it and knowledge can raise men to the divine.” Ludwig van Beethoven

“That man is wisest who, like Socrates, realizes that his wisdom is worthless.” Plato

“The seed of suffering in you may be strong, but don’t wait until you have no more suffering before allowing yourself to be happy.” Thich Nhat Hanh

“History is Philosophy teaching by examples.” Thucydides

“It may be important to great thinkers to examine the world, to explain and despise it. But I think it is only important to love the world, not to despise it, not for us to hate each other, but to be able to regard the world and ourselves and all beings with love, admiration, and respect.” Hermann Hesse

“If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things.” René Descartes

Philosophical quotes like this really make you think

“Learning does not make one learned: there are those who have knowledge and those who have understanding. The first requires memory and the second philosophy.” Alexandre Dumas

“I can control my passions and emotions if I can understand their nature.” Spinoza

“Don’t just say you have read books. Show that through them you have learned to think better, to be a more discriminating and reflective person. Books are the training weights of the mind. They are very helpful, but it would be a bad mistake to suppose that one has made progress simply by having internalized their contents.” Epictetus

“If men were born free, they would, so long as they remained free, form no conception of good and evil.” Baruch Spinoza

“It is the power of the mind to be unconquerable.” Seneca

“He who is unable to live in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or a god.” Aristotle

“Even the finest sword plunged into salt water will eventually rust.” Sun Tzu

“One cannot step twice in the same river.” Heraclitus

“If ignorance is bliss, there should be more happy people.” Victor Cousin

“Only one man ever understood me, and he didn’t understand me.” G. W. F. Hegel

“Once upon a time, I dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was myself. Soon I awoke, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man.” Zhuangzi

“We live in the best of all possible worlds.” Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

“If someone is able to show me that what I think or do is not right, I will happily change, for I seek the truth, by which no one was ever truly harmed. It is the person who continues in his self-deception and ignorance who is harmed.” Marcus Aurelius

“Doing nothing is better than being busy doing nothing.” Lao Tzu

“It is undesirable to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatever for supposing it true.” Bertrand Russell

“Physics isn’t the most important thing. Love is.” Richard P. Feynman

“The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates

“I never found beauty in longing for the impossible and never found the possible to be beyond my reach.” Ayn Rand

“I think therefore I am.” René Descartes

“I assess the power of a will by how much resistance, pain, torture it endures and knows how to turn to its advantage” Fredrich Nietzsche

“Metaphysics is a dark ocean without shores or lighthouse, strewn with many a philosophic wreck.” Immanuel Kant

“Only that day dawns to which we are awake. There is more day to dawn. The sun is but a morning star.” Henry David Thoreau

“Virtue is nothing else than right reason.” Seneca

“The energy of the mind is the essence of life.” Aristotle

“Man is the measure of all things.” Protagoras

“Madness is something rare in individuals — but in groups, parties, peoples, and ages, it is the rule.” Friedrich Nietzsche

“In everything, there is a share of everything.” Anaxagoras

“The more you struggle to live, the less you live. Give up the notion that you must be sure of what you are doing. Instead, surrender to what is real within you, for that alone is sure….you are above everything distressing.” Spinoza

“No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.” John Locke

“Seize the moments of happiness, love and be loved! That is the only reality in the world, all else is folly. It is the one thing we are interested in here.” Leo Tolstoy

“Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily.” William of Ockham

“One’s life has value so long as one attributes value to the life of others, by means of love, friendship, and compassion” Simone de Beauvoir

“Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language.” Ludwig Wittgenstein

“The essence of independence has been to think and act according to standards from within, not without: to follow one’s own path, not that of the crowd.” Nicholas Tharcher

“Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau

“It is therefore senseless to think of complaining since nothing foreign has decided what we feel, what we live, or what we are.” Jean-Paul Sartre

“Science is what you know. Philosophy is what you don’t know.” Bertrand Russell

“Words do not express thoughts very well; everything immediately becomes a little different, a little distorted, a little foolish. And yet it also pleases me and seems right that what is of value and wisdom of one man seems nonsense to another.” Siddhartha Gautama

“What is rational is actual and what is actual is rational.” G. W. F. Hegel

I hope you enjoyed this collection of philosophical quotes. Who is your favorite philosopher and why?

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I really enjoyed this collection of philosophical quotes and resonated with most of them.

I really enjoyed this collection. Kierkegaard is my favorite because of his simplicity yet powerful perspective.

very lovely —-inspiring ,thought provoking

Encouraging quotes, love tham .

Man is the measure of all things

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Bertrand Russell Quotes

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The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, and wiser people so full of doubts.

The first step in a fascist movement is the combination under an energetic leader of a number of men who possess more than the average share of leisure, brutality, and stupidity. The next step is to fascinate fools and muzzle the intelligent, by emotional excitement on the one hand and terrorism on the other.

If an opinion contrary to your own makes you angry, that is a sign that you are subconsciously aware of having no good reason for thinking as you do.

Men are born ignorant, not stupid. They are made stupid by education.

The time you enjoy wasting is not wasted time.

Fear is the main source of superstition, and one of the main sources of cruelty. To conquer fear is the beginning of wisdom.

Religion is based ... mainly upon fear ... fear of the mysterious, fear of defeat, fear of death. Fear is the parent of cruelty, and therefore it is no wonder if cruelty and religion have gone hand in hand. My own view on religion is that of Lucretius. I regard it as a disease born of fear and as a source of untold misery to the human race.

The most valuable things in life are not measured in monetary terms. The really important things are not houses and lands, stocks and bonds, automobiles and real state, but friendships, trust, confidence, empathy, mercy, love and faith.

To understand the actual world as it is, not as we should wish it to be, is the beginning of wisdom.

The key to happiness is accepting one unpleasant reality every day.

Be isolated, be ignored, be attacked, be in doubt, be frightened, but do not be silenced.

There is much pleasure to be gained from useless knowledge.

A smile happens in a flash, but its memory can last a lifetime.

Even when the experts all agree, they may well be mistaken.

Belief systems provide a programme which relieves the necessity of thought.

Men fear thought as they fear nothing else on earth - more than ruin, more even than death. Thought is subversive and revolutionary, destructive and terrible, thought is merciless to privilege, established institutions, and comfortable habits; thought is anarchic and lawless, indifferent to authority, careless of the well-tried wisdom of the ages. Thought looks into the pit of hell and is not afraid ... Thought is great and swift and free, the light of the world, and the chief glory of man.

Do not fear to be eccentric in opinion, for every opinion now accepted was once eccentric.

Collective fear stimulates herd instinct, and tends to produce ferocity toward those who are not regarded as members of the herd.

Most human beings, though in varying degrees, desire to control, not only their own lives but also the lives of others

The world is full of magical things patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper.

The greatest challenge to any thinker is stating the problem in a way that will allow a solution.

I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong.

The trouble with the world is that the stupid are cocksure and the intelligent are full of doubt.

We have in fact, two kinds of morality, side by side: one which we preach, but do not practice, and another which we practice, but seldom preach.

A stupid man's report of what a clever man says can never be accurate, because he unconsciously translates what he hears into something he can understand.

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Bertrand Russell

• Born: May 18, 1872
• Died: February 2, 1970
• Occupation: Philosopher
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Information on Writing Philosophy Papers

Please familiarize yourself with the university’s academic honest policies if you have not already done so. They are available here: http://www.rochester.edu/college/honesty/docs/Academic_Honesty.pdf . Note in particular that it is a violation of these policies to use material from any source (other than yourself) in your papers without attribution and, where relevant, use of quotation marks. This applies especially to copying and pasting material from websites, which should always be avoided. You may, of course, make limited use of academically respectable web resources where relevant, as long as they are properly cited (I'm not picky about the exact format of your citations, as long as they contain the relevant information) and any quoted material is clearly placed in quotation marks (though this should still be a very limited portion of your paper). However, you should never make any use at all of student 'essay mills'--websites that offer students canned student essays for 'research' purposes: these essays are not research and do not meet the standards for scholarly sources; they have no place in the writing of your papers.

General Guidelines for Writing Philosophy Papers

• Clarity and straightforwardness of thought and language are crucial: avoid flowery styles and long, superfluous introductions and conclusions. (No paper should ever start with a sentence like: "Since the dawn of time, mankind has pondered the question of...") The bulk of your paper should consist of philosophical exposition and analysis, in plain but precise language.
• If you are writing an essay in response to an assigned essay topic, the most important thing is simply to make sure you answer the question that was asked , carefully and thoroughly. Avoid getting off on tangents that are not crucial to your topic, and avoid sweeping generalizations you can't support in the paper . In addition to the quality of exposition, one of the central things we look for in a philosophy paper is how well the thesis in question is supported. Even if the reader thinks some of your claims are false, your paper can be excellent if you do a solid job of defending your claims.
• If you are asked to explain something, do not merely summarize what an author or lecturer has said. Explain and illuminate the relevant ideas or arguments in your own words, as if you were trying to help a fellow student gain a deeper understanding of them.
• Avoid excessive quotation! Stringing together quotes is not explaining a position or an argument, and does not display your understanding of the material. Even paraphrasing in your own words is not enough. Again, explanation involves clarifying the claims, bringing out hidden assumptions behind arguments, noticing ambiguities as they arise and nailing them down, and so on.
• In addition to careful explanation of positions or arguments, some paper topics ask for critical evaluation of those positions and arguments. An example of critical evaluation of an argument would be my lecture criticizing Thomson's argument for the conclusion that abortions wouldn't violate a fetus' right to life even if it were granted to have a full right to life. (I developed and used a distinction between positive and negative rights, and argued that the central parallel she appeals to in her argument fails to go through, since it involves a conflation of positive and negative rights.) Some paper topics ask you to do the same sort of thing, and if you're writing on such a topic, be sure that this component of your paper is strong and well developed.
• Proofreading of papers is a necessity. So is decent grammar: incoherent grammar makes the effective communication of ideas impossible.
• As for which topic you choose: You should choose something you're most interested in and have the most to say about. Beware of any topic that seems too easy: If it seems simple--like something you can dash off in a few paragraphs--then that's a good sign that you're not thinking deeply enough about it, and you should probably write on another topic. So choose your topic carefully.
• This is important : If you use someone else's words, you have to use quotation marks and cite the source in a footnote. If you don't, it's plagiarism, which constitutes cheating and is a violation of the honor code. See note at top.

Sample Short Paper and Commentary

For Illustrative purposes only

Sample Essay Question : Is Socrates' position in the Crito , concerning the moral authority of the state, consistent with his view that one should never do anything that is wrong? Is it consistent with what he says, in the Apology , about what he would do if commanded by the state to cease practicing philosophy, or about what he did when commanded by the Thirty to capture Leon of Salamis for execution? Explain.

(Note: page references are to a different edition than the one you have ; paragraphs should be indented, but are not here due to limitations of html formatting; I have not here included footnotes for the same reason; and your papers should be double-spaced, rather than single-spaced.)

Socrates on the Moral Authority of the State

In the Crito , Socrates makes some surprisingly strong claims about the moral authority of the state, which might even seem to be inconsistent both with another fundamental claim he makes in the Crito and with certain claims he makes in the Apology . I shall argue that although these claims seem to be in some tension with each other, the crucial claims about the authority of the state in the Crito can plausibly be interpreted in such a way as to remove any real inconsistency with the other claims.

The first, rather striking claim about the moral authority of the state occurs at 51b of the Crito . Socrates argues that, because of the state's role as a provider of security, education, and various important social institutions (such as marriage), the citizens of the state are its "offspring and servants"; and from this he concludes that citizens are subordinate to the state and its laws to such an extent that if a citizen ever disagrees with the state's laws or orders, he "must either persuade it or obey its orders," even if the latter amounts to suffering death. The implication for his own case is clear: Socrates had tried to persuade the court of his innocence and of the injustice of his execution (as detailed in the Apology ), but he had failed; therefore, he argues, he must now obey the court and accept his death sentence--even though he still thinks that he is in the right on this matter.

The second, closely related claim, comes only a few paragraphs later, in 51e and 52. Socrates there argues that by virtue of remaining in the state, a citizen enters into an implied contract with it to obey its commands. More precisely, the claim is again that a citizen who has a disagreement with the state must either persuade it that it is wrong, or else obey it. In the voice of the personified laws: "either persuade us or do what we say" (52a). The implication, again, is that if one fails to persuade the state to change its mind, for whatever reason, then one must obey its orders. A citizen has no moral right to continue to resist the state, even if he is convinced that he is in the right and the state is in the wrong.

Now as mentioned above, these claims seem directly opposed to certain other claims Socrates makes. Most importantly, earlier in the Crito itself, Socrates had stressed that "one must never do wrong" (49b). Indeed, this serves as the driving principle behind the rest of his argument in the Crito . But is this really consistent with maintaining that one must always obey the state, if one fails to persuade it that something it orders is wrong? The obvious objection is that the state might well order one to do something wrong--e.g. because one of its laws is an unjust one, as Jim Crow laws were. In that case, Socrates' claim that one should never do anything wrong would entail refusing to do what the state orders-- even if one is unsuccessful in persuading the state that it is wrong. Thus, Socrates' claim that one should never do wrong seems inconsistent with his claim that one must always obey the final orders of the state. 

Secondly, it might be objected that Socrates' view of the moral authority of the state is inconsistent both with what he did when ordered by the Thirty to capture Leon of Salamis for execution, and with what he says he'd do if ordered by the state to cease practicing philosophy (both from the Apology ). When the Thirty ordered him to capture Leon, he refused, on the grounds that this would have been wrong (unjust and impious). ( Apology , 32c-d) This seems to be a recognition that one is morally obligated or at least permitted to disobey the state when what it commands is wrong--even if one fails to persuade it of its wrongness. And similarly, Socrates makes clear that he would disobey the state and continue philosophizing if it were to order him to stop--again, on the grounds that it would be wrong for him to stop philosophizing (recall that he saw philosophy as his life's mission, given him by the god). ( Apology , 29c-d) Again, this seems to contradict what he says in the Crito about the supreme moral authority of the state and its laws and orders.

I believe, however, that it is possible to read the crucial passages about the authority of the state in the Crito in such a way as to render them consistent with Socrates' exhortation never to do wrong, and with his remarks about disobedience in the Apology . To see this, it is necessary to distinguish first of all between two issues: (a) what the law might require you to do , and (b) what the law might require you to endure . With this distinction in mind, consider the following possible interpretations of Socrates' claim about the moral authority of the state in the Crito :

( i ) Citizens must obey any law or order of the state, whatever it asks them to do or to endure ;

(ii) Citizens must endure whatever any law or order of the state says they must--including the law that verdicts arrived at through proper procedures shall be carried out--but citizens need not and morally should not do what is prescribed by an unjust law.

Now which of these positions is it most plausible to attribute to Socrates in the Crito ?

There are passages that might seem to suggest i (e.g. 51e, 52a), but again, the obvious problem is that it seems inconsistent with his fundamental principle that one should never do wrong (49a)--at least on the assumption, which Socrates clearly accepts in the Apology , that the state is not infallible as regards judgments of right and wrong. Thus, a more charitable reading would interpret the passages about the moral authority of the state as referring implicitly to cases where the state does not require one to do anything unjust, but merely to endure something (or perhaps to do something that is not itself unjust, such as rendering some political service).

If the passages are read in this way, we can interpret Socrates' claim as ii above. When he says that one must obey the state's final laws and orders, what he means is that one must do anything it tells one to do within the bounds of justice , and that one must endure anything it tells one to endure. Thus, Socrates was not obligated to capture Leon of Salamis, and would not be obligated to cease philosophizing if ordered to, since that would be doing something wrong (i.e. something that is not within the bounds of justice); but he is obligated to accept and endure his punishment, as long as it was arrived at through proper judicial procedures. The latter is true, according to Socrates, even though the punishment is wrong; for by suffering it, he is not himself doing anything wrong, but only enduring something wrong. This is perfectly consistent with Socrates' exhortation never to do anything wrong.

Thus, what at first appears to be a blatant contradiction among Socrates' various claims is fairly easily remedied if we interpret the relevant passages in the Crito as making the claim in ii rather than the claim in i above. This interpretation is supported not only by the fact that it helps to reconcile Socrates' seemingly contradictory claims, but also by the fact that Socrates' examples of obedience to the state over one's own objections all involve having to endure something, rather than having to do something. He speaks in Crito 51b, for example, of having to "endure in silence whatever it instructs you to endure, whether blows or bonds, and if it leads you into war to be wounded or killed, you must obey." Though he does not explicitly formulate his claim as in ii above, his focus is clearly on the issue of having to endure something prescribed by the state, over one's own objections. Therefore, it is consistent with the text to interpret him as making only the claim in ii, which is fully compatible with his claim that one must never do wrong, and with his claim that under certain conditions one should refuse to do something the state orders (such as refusing to capture someone for an unjust execution, or refusing to cease carrying out your divine mission as long as you live).

As for the plausibility of Socrates' view, I believe that it is still overly demanding, even when qualified as in ii above. It's unclear why any of the factors Socrates mentioned should give the state such overriding moral authority that one should be morally obliged to endure execution without resistance even in cases where the state is genuinely in the wrong. It seems more plausible to hold that if one stands to be unjustly executed, one can rightly resist this punishment ( even if it would equally be permissible not to resist). One could do this, I think, without showing any contempt for the laws, or challenging their authority, since one still grants the state's authority to do its best to carry out the punishment, and simply asserts a moral right to do one's best in turn to avoid such wrongful punishment. But that's a topic for another paper.

COMMENTARY :

Note, first of all, the concise, crisp introduction. The problem is plainly stated, and then I explain clearly what I'm going to do in the paper--all in just a few sentences. There's no rambling introduction with sentences starting with "Since the beginning of time, mankind has pondered the mysteries of etc."

The style is straightforward, striving for clarity rather than literary flair. Jargon is avoided as far as possible.

After the introduction, the problem is stated in more depth and detail, with textual references. Notice the spare use of quotes. I quote only a few words here and there, where necessary to illustrate the points. This might be extended to a few sentences, if necessary, but beware of over-quoting and letting someone else's words do your work for you. (The worst mistake is just stringing together quotes, which accomplishes nothing.) Notice also that textual references are given for the quotes, as well as for paraphrased passages. (Normally, I'd use footnotes and have complete citations, but I'm limited by html format here.)

Notice how, in describing the problem, I try to elucidate it, rather than just summarizing it. Summary is not explanation . Instead, I try to make clear where exactly the tensions among the various claims seem to arise and why, and how they apply to Socrates' own case. I've tried to go well beyond the superficial statement of the problem in the essay question, to illuminate and develop it.

Now having done that, one might just stop and claim to have answered the question: "No, the various positions are not consistent, and Socrates is just contradicting himself." But that would be a very superficial paper. Instead, I tried to dig beneath the surface a little bit, and to notice that the central claim can be interpreted in more than one way. So I first of all made a distinction between two possible interpretations, which in turn depended on a distinction between what you might be commanded to do and what you might be commanded to endure . That distinction enabled me to argue for an interpretation of what Socrates is claiming about the moral authority of the state that renders this claim consistent with his other claims. (Noticing and exploiting distinctions is a large part of what doing philosophy is all about.)

Whether or not you agree with that particular argument, you can see the difference between bringing the discussion to that level of detail and merely staying on the surface. So even if you would have taken a different position, the point is that a good paper would still be engaging with the issues at that level of depth, rather than remaining on the surface. If you think Socrates really is contradicting himself, for example, you might then also discuss the distinctions I pointed out, but then argue for an interpretation along the lines of the first interpretation instead, despite the inconsistencies with other things he says. (Of course, you'd have to be able to give an argument for why the text should be understood in that way, despite the fact that Socrates winds up with rather glaringly conflicting claims on that reading.)

Again, notice that I am striving for clarity , precision and thoroughness , along with a straightforward organization for the paper.

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Philosophy essay writing guide

Introduction.

This guide is intended to give new students of philosophy some preliminary advice about writing philosophy essays at university. For many of you, writing a philosophy essay will be something of a new experience, and no doubt many of you will be a little unsure of what to expect, or of what is expected of you. Most of you will have written essays in school for English, History, etc. A philosophy essay is something a little different again. However, it is not an unfathomable, mysterious affair, nor one where anything goes.

Just what a philosophy essay is will depend a lot, as you'd expect, on just what philosophy is. Defining philosophy is always a more or less controversial business, but one way to think of what is done in university philosophy departments is to think of the difference between having a philosophy and doing philosophy. Virtually everyone "has a philosophy" in the sense that we have many basic beliefs about the world and ourselves and use certain key concepts to articulate those beliefs. Many of us initially come to thus "have a philosophy" (or elements of several philosophies) often only unconsciously, or by following "what's obvious" or "what everybody knows", or by adopting a view because it sounds exciting or is intellectually fashionable.

"Doing philosophy", on the other hand, is a self-conscious unearthing and rigorous examination of these basic beliefs and key concepts. In doing so, we try to clarify the meanings of those beliefs and concepts and to evaluate critically their rational grounds or justification. Thus, rather than having their heads in the clouds, philosophers are really more under the surface of our thinking, examining the structures that support - or fail to support - those who trust that they have their feet on the ground. Such examination may even help to develop new and firmer ground.

Doing philosophy, then, begins with asking questions about the fundamental ideas and concepts that inform our ways of looking at the world and ourselves, and proceeds by developing responses to those questions which seek to gain insight into those ideas and concepts - and part of that development consists in asking further questions, giving further responses, and so on. Human beings across the world have been engaged in this sort of dialogue of question and response for many centuries - even millennia - and a number of great traditions of reflection and inquiry have evolved that have fundamentally influenced the development of religion, art, science and politics in many cultures. The influence of philosophical thinking on Western civilization, in particular, can be traced back more than 2,500 years to the Ancient Greeks.

In philosophy, a good essay is one that, among other things, displays a good sense of this dialectic of question and response by asking insightful, probing questions, and providing reasoned, well-argued responses. This means that you should not rest content with merely an unintegrated collection of assertions, but should instead work at establishing logical relations between your thoughts. You are assessed not on the basis of what you believe, but on how well you argue for the position you adopt in your essay, and on how interesting and insightful your discussion of the issues is. That is to say, you are assessed on how well you do philosophy, not on what philosophy you end up having. Nonetheless, you ought to make sure that your essay's discussion is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.)

It is hoped that you enjoy the activity of essay writing. If you have chosen to study Arts, it is likely that you will have a particular interest in - even a passion for - ideas and the variety of forms and genres in which ideas are expressed and explored. The argumentative or discursive formal academic essay is one such form, and one which can be a pleasure to read and to write. Thus, the assessment that is set in philosophy courses is primarily an invitation to you to pursue what is already (or, hopefully, soon to be) your own interest in writing to explore ideas. However, your immediate goal in writing an academic philosophy essay ought not to be to write a personal testament, confession or polemic. Rather, you should primarily aim at articulating, clearly and relatively dispassionately, your philosophical thinking on the topic at hand. Nevertheless, the kind and degree of personal development one can gain from taking up the challenge to think and to write carefully, clearly and thoroughly is certainly something to be greatly valued.

This guide is intended to help you get started in the business of writing philosophy essays. As you practise your philosophical writing skills, you will develop your own technique, and learn what is appropriate in each particular case. So you may well come to "work around" many of these guidelines. Nonetheless, it is important that you pass through that which you seek to pass beyond.* In addition to your own writing, your reading of other philosophers will help you to develop your sense of what constitutes good philosophical writing. As you read, note the various styles and techniques that philosophical authors employ in their treatment of philosophical issues. Practice and studying good examples, then, are the most valuable ways to develop your essay writing skills.

This guide is, moreover, only one of many publications that introduce philosophy students to essay writing. Some others you may like to consult include:

• A. P. Martinich, Philosophical Writing, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997)
• J. Feinberg and R. Shafer-Landau, Doing Philosophy: A Guide to the Writing of Philosophy Papers, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• Z. Seech, Writing Philosophy Papers, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2003)
• R. Solomon, "Writing Philosophy", Appendix to his The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy, 6th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• S. Gorovitz et al., Philosophical Analysis: An Introduction to its Language and Techniques, 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 1979)

Also, the websites of many philosophy departments in universities around Australia and the world contain downloadable essay writing guides or links to them.

*This phrase is adapted from Jacques Bouveresse, "Why I am so very unFrench", in Alan Montefiore, ed., Philosophy in France Today (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 12.

What do I do in a Philosophy essay?

Philosophy essay topics are not designed to provide an intellectual obstacle course that trips you up so as to delight a malicious marker. They are designed to invite you to "grapple with" with some particular philosophical problem or issue. That is to say, they are designed to offer you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of a particular philosophical problem or issue, and to exhibit your own philosophical skills of analysis, argumentation, etc. These twin goals are usually best achieved by ensuring that your essay performs two basic functions (your understanding and your skills apply to both):

an exposition of the problem or issue in question (often as it is posed in some particular text); and a critical discussion of the problem or text

These two functions can, but need not always, correspond to physically or structurally distinct sections of your essay. See Section 5.1.

The expository ("setting forth") aspect of your essay is where you should make clear what the issue is and why it is an issue. Where you are dealing with an issue as it is presented in some particular text, your aim should be to make clear what it is that the author in question meant in their text, what they see as the issue and why they see it as an issue. This does not involve merely quoting or paraphrasing a text. Of course, occasional quotation and paraphrase may be appropriate - sometimes necessary - but these ought not to constitute the sole or major content of your exposition. Where you do quote or paraphrase, make sure you attribute your sources in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.)

Exposition is, then, primarily a matter of developing in your own words what you think the issue is or what you think the text means. In all expository work you should always try to give a fair and accurate account of a text or problem, even when the exposition becomes more interpretive rather than simply descriptive. You ought to be patient and sympathetic in your exposition, even if you intend later to criticise heavily the philosopher in question. Indeed, the better the exposition in this regard, usually the more effective the critique.

An important part of exposition is your analysis of the text or issue. Here you should try to "break down" the text, issue or problem into its constitutive elements by distinguishing its different parts. (E.g. "There are two basic kinds of freedom in question when we speak of freedom of the will. First, … . Second, …", or "There are three elements in Plato's conception of the soul, namely... He establishes these three elements by means of the following two arguments... ") This also involves showing the relationships between those elements, relationships which make them "parts of the whole".

As well as laying out these elements within a text or issue, you can also (when appropriate or relevant) show how a text or issue "connects up with" other texts, issues, or philosophical and/or historical developments, which can help to shed further light on the matter by giving it a broader context. (eg "Freedom of the will is importantly connected to the justification of punishment", or "Plato's tripartite theory of the soul bears interesting resemblances to Freud's analysis of the psyche", or "Kant's transcendental idealism can be seen as reconciling the preceding rationalist and empiricist accounts of knowledge".)

An exposition of a text need not always simply follow the author's own view of what it means. You should, of course, demonstrate that you understand how the author themself understands their work, but an exposition can sometimes go beyond this, giving another reading of the text. (eg "Heidegger might deny it, but his Being and Time can be read as developing a pragmatist account of human understanding.") A given text or issue may well be susceptible to a number of plausible or reasonable interpretations. An exposition should aim to be sensitive to such variety. When appropriate, you should defend your interpretations against rivals and objections. Your interpretation ought, though, to be aimed at elucidating the meaning or meanings of the text or issue and not serve merely as a "coat-hanger" for presenting your own favoured views on the matter in question, which should be left to your ...

Critical discussion

This is where your thought gets more of the centre stage. Here you should attempt to develop a response to the issues which your exposition has made clear, and/or, in the case of a discussion of some particular text, attempt to give a critical appraisal of the author's treatment of the issue. In developing a response to a philosophical problem, argumentation is, again, of central importance. Avoid making unsupported assertions; back up your claims with reasons, and connect up your ideas so that they progress logically toward your conclusions. Consider some of the various objections to and questions about your views that others might or have put forward, and try to respond to them in defence of your own line of thinking. Your goal here should be to discuss what you have expounded so as to come to some conclusion or judgement about it. ("Critical" is derived from the Ancient Greek for "to decide, to judge".) Critical discussion is thus not necessarily "destructive" or "negative"; it can be quite constructive and positive.

In the case of a critical appraisal of a particular author's text, you can negatively criticise the author's arguments by pointing out questionable assumptions, invalid reasoning, etc. If, on the other hand, you think that the text is good, then your critical discussion can be positive. This can be done by revealing its "hidden virtues" (that is, by showing that there is more to the author's arguments and views than what lies on the surface) and/or by defending an author against possible and/or actual criticisms. (eg "Norman Malcolm argues that Descartes is mistaken in assuming that dreams and waking episodes have the same content.* However, Malcolm fails to appreciate the subtlety of Descartes' argument in the First Meditation, which allows Descartes to claim . . .") Just to expound an author's arguments and then say "I disagree" or "That seems right" is not really enough - you need to "have something to say" about it. Of course, by all means go on, after finding fault with some philosopher, to answer in your own way the questions tackled or raised by the author. (eg "Simone de Beauvoir's analysis of women's oppression in The Second Sex suffers from serious weaknesses, as I have shown in Section 2 above. A better way to approach the issue, I shall now argue, is to . . .".)

Where you are not primarily concerned with evaluating or responding to a particular text, your critical discussion can be more focused on your own constructive response to the issue. (eg "Having used Dworkin's account to clarify the meanings of the concepts of 'the sanctity of life' and 'voluntariness', I shall now argue that voluntary euthanasia is morally permissible because its voluntariness respects what is of value in the notion of the sanctity of life" - where you now leave Dworkin behind as a source and move on to give your own account.)

* See Norman Malcolm, "Dreaming and Skepticism", in Willis Doney, ed., Descartes: A Collection of Critical Essays (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 56.

Guide to researching and writing Philosophy essays

5th edition by Steven Tudor , for the Philosophy program, University of Melbourne, 2003.

This fifth edition of How to Write a Philosophy Essay: A Guide for Students (previous editions titled A Guide to Researching and Writing Philosophy Essays ) was prepared in consultation with members of the Philosophy program, the University of Melbourne. For advice and assistance on this and earlier editions, thanks are due to Graham Priest, Barry Taylor, Christopher Cordner, Doug Adeney, Josie Winther, Linda Burns, Marion Tapper, Kimon Lycos, Brendan Long, Jeremy Moss, Tony Coady, Will Barrett, Brian Scarlett, and Megan Laverty. Some use was also made of materials prepared by the Philosophy Departments of La Trobe University, the University of Queensland, and The Australian National University.

Disclaimer: University, Faculty and program rules

Please note: this booklet does not provide authoritative statements of the official policies or rules of the University of Melbourne, the Faculty of Arts, or the Philosophy program with regard to student essays and examinations or any other matters. Students should, therefore, not rely on this booklet for such information, for which they should consult the various appropriate notice boards, handbooks, websites, and/or members of staff.

Essay topics

What do philosophy essay topics look like? There are, very roughly, two basic kinds of philosophy essay topics: "text-focused" topics and "problem-focused" topics. Text-focused topics ask you to consider some particular philosopher's writing on some issue. (eg "Discuss critically David Hume's account of causation in Part III of Book I of his A Treatise of Human Nature " or "Was Wittgenstein right to say that 'the meaning of a word is its use in the language', in his Philosophical Investigations, Sec. 43?"). Problem-focused topics are more directly about a particular philosophical problem or issue, without reference to any particular philosopher's text. (eg "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" or "What is scientific method?")

There is another sort of topic, one which presents a statement and asks you to discuss it, where that statement is a "made up" or, at least, unattributed quote. (eg. "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss.") I shall regard these as variations of the problem-focused type of topic. Where you are asked to discuss some such statement "with reference to" some specified text or philosopher, then that topic becomes more text-focused. (eg "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss with reference to J.L. Mackie's Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. ") Occasionally, a topic presents an unattributed statement, but the statement is, in fact, a quote from a particular philosopher you've been studying, or, at least, a good paraphrase of their thinking. (An example of the latter: "'All the ideas in our minds originate from either sense perception or our reflection upon sensory information.' Discuss.", in a course devoted to John Locke, whose views are summed up in the quoted statement, though those words are not actually his.) Should you take such topics as problem- or text-focused? Rather unhelpfully, I'll say only that it depends on the case. You might ask your lecturer or tutor about it. Whichever way you do take it, be clear in your essay which way you are taking it.

The difference between text-focused and problem-focused essay topics is, however, not very radical. This is because, on the one hand, any particular philosopher's text is about some philosophical problem or question, while, on the other hand, most philosophical problems (certainly virtually all those you will be given as essay topics at university) will have been written about by previous philosophers.

The basic way to approach text-focused topics, then, is to treat the nominated text as an attempt by one philosopher to deal with a particular philosophical problem or issue. The essay topic will, generally speaking, be inviting you to do philosophy with that philosopher, to engage with them in thinking about the issue, whether that engagement proves to be as an ally or an adversary. The chosen text will usually be one which has been (or deserves to be) influential or significant in the history of philosophy, but the task is not to pay homage to past masters. But, even if homage is your thing, the best way to do that here is to engage with the master philosophically.

With regard to problem-focused topics, you will often find your exploration of the problem aided by taking some text or texts which have dealt with it as reference points or prompts. This is not always strictly necessary, but many of you starting out in philosophy will find it helpful to do so - it can help you give focus to your response to the question. (Thus, you might, in an essay on the topic "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" take it upon yourself to use, for example, Ronald Dworkin's Life's Dominion and Peter Singer's Practical Ethics as reference points. Or, in an essay on the topic "What is scientific method?", you might set up your answer via a comparison of the two different accounts in Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and Paul Feyerabend's Against Method.*) How will you know which texts to adopt as reference points or prompts, if none is mentioned in the essay topic itself? One way is to consider what texts have already been mentioned with regard to the topic in your course reading guide and in lectures and tutorials. Another way is to do some of your own research. On this see Section 4 below.

* In this guide, in giving examples of how to go about answering an essay question, I am not necessarily giving any concrete or reliable advice for any particular topic. The examples are primarily to do with the form or style or strategy you might find helpful.

Researching your essay

To do research for your philosophy essay you need to do only two things: read and think. Actually, for problem-focused essays, thinking is the only truly necessary bit, but it's highly likely that you will find your thinking much assisted if you do some reading as well. Philosophical research at university is a little different to research in most other disciplines (especially the natural sciences), in that it is not really about "collecting data" to support or refute explanatory theories. Rather, the thinking that's involved in philosophical research (as part of one's preparation for philosophical writing) is more a matter of reflecting critically upon the problems in front of one. Researching the writings of other philosophers should, therefore, be primarily directed towards helping you with that reflection rather than aiming at gathering together and reporting on "the relevant findings" on a particular topic. In many other disciplines, a "literature review" is an important research skill, and sometimes philosophy academics do such reviews - but it is rare that philosophy students are asked to do one.

What, then, to read? It should be clear from your lectures and tutorials what some starting points for your reading might be. (All courses provide reading guides; many also have booklets of reading material.) Your tutor and lecturer are also available for consultation on what readings you might begin with for any particular topic in that subject. Independent research can also uncover useful sources, and evidence of this in your essay can be a pleasing sign of intellectual independence. Make sure, though, that what you come up with is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.) Whichever way you proceed, your reading should be purposive and selective.

In the case of essay questions that refer to a particular text, you should familiarise yourself thoroughly with this text. Usually, such a text will be a primary text, i.e. one in which a philosopher writes directly about a philosophical issue. Texts on or about a primary text are called secondary texts. (Many philosophical works will combine these two tasks, and discuss other philosophical texts while also dealing directly with a philosophical issue.) Some secondary texts can be helpful to students. However, don't think you will only ever understand a primary text if you have a nice friendly secondary text to take you by the hand through the primary text. More often than not, you need to have a good grasp of the primary text in order to make sense of the secondary text.

How much to read? The amount of reading you do should be that which maximises the quality of your thinking - that is, you should not swamp yourself with vast slabs of text that you can't digest, but nor should you starve your mind of ideas to chew over. There is, of course, no simple rule for determining this optimal amount. Be wary, though, of falling into the vice of looking for excuses not to read some philosopher or text, as in "Oh, that's boring old religious stuff" or "She's one of those obscure literary feminist types", or "In X Department they laugh at you if you mention those authors in tutes". If someone wants a reason not to think, they'll soon come up with one.

Philosophical writings

Most philosophical writings come in either of two forms: books or articles. Articles appear either in books that are edited anthologies or in academic journals, such as Philosophical Quarterly or Australasian Journal of Philosophy. Some academic journals are also on the internet. Most articles in the journals are written by professional philosophers for professional philosophers; similarly with many books. But by no means let this put you off. Everyone begins philosophy at the deep end - it's really the only kind there is!

There are, however, many books written for student audiences. Some of these are general introductions to philosophy as a whole; others are introductions to particular areas or issues (eg biomedical ethics or philosophy of science). Among the general introductions are various philosophical dictionaries, encyclopedias and "companions". These reference works collect short articles on a wide range of topics and can be very useful starting points for newcomers to a topic. Among the most useful of the general reference works are:

• Edward Craig, ed., The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) (London: Routledge, 1998)
• Paul Edwards, ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (8 vols.) (New York: Macmillan, 1967)
• Robert Audi, ed., The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
• Ted Honderich, ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)
• Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Thomas Mautner, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Penguin, 1998)
• J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Ree, eds., The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers (London: Routledge, 1993)
• Edward N. Zalta, ed., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (an internet-based reference work: plato.stanford.edu/ )

Note taking

Note taking, like your reading, should not be random, but ought to be guided by the topic in question and by your particular lines of response to the issues involved. Note taking for philosophy is very much an individual art, which you develop as you progress. By and large it is not of much use to copy out reams of text as part of your researches. Nor is it generally helpful to read a great number of pages without making any note of what they contain for future reference. But between these two extremes it is up to you to find the mean that best helps you in getting your thoughts together.

Libraries and electronic resources

The University's Baillieu Library (including the Institute of Education Resource Centre), which is open to all members of the University, contains more than 2,500 years' worth of philosophical writings. The best way to become acquainted with them is by using them, including using the catalogues (including the Baillieu's on-line catalogues and subject resources web-pages), following up a work's references (and references in the references), intelligent browsing of the shelves, etc.

In the main Baillieu Library, the philosophical books are located (mostly) between 100–199 in the Dewey decimal system, and philosophical journals are located in the basement. The Reference section on the ground floor also has some relevant works. The Education Resource Centre also has a good philosophy collection.

In addition to hard-copy philosophical writings, there is also a variety of electronic resources in philosophy, mostly internet-based. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy was already mentioned above. Links to other useful internet sites (such as the Australasian Association of Philosophy website) can be found through the Baillieu Library's web-page and the Philosophy Department's web-page.

A strong word of warning, however, for the would-be philosophical web-surfer: because anyone can put material on a website, all kinds of stuff, of varying levels of quality, is out there - and new-comers to philosophy are usually not well placed to sort their way through it. Unless you have a very good understanding of what you're looking for - and what you're not looking for - most of you will be much better off simply carefully reading and thinking about a central text for your course, eg Descartes' First Meditation, rather than wandering about the internet clicking on all the hits for "Descartes". Exercise your mind, not your index finger.

Writing your essay

Planning and structuring your essay.

It is very important that you plan your essay, so that you have an idea of what you are going to write before you start to write it. Of course, you will most likely alter things in later drafts, but you should still start off by having a plan. Planning your essay includes laying out a structure. It is very important that your essay has a clearly discernible structure, ie that it is composed of parts and that these parts are logically connected. This helps both you and your reader to be clear about how your discussion develops, stage by stage, as you work through the issues at hand.

Poor essay structure is one of the most common weaknesses in student philosophy essays. Taking the time to work on the structure of your essay is time well spent, especially since skill in structuring your thoughts for presentation to others should be among the more enduring things you learn at university. A common trap that students fall into is to start their essay by writing the first sentence, then writing another one that seems to follow that one, then another one that sort of fits after that one, then another that might or might not have some connection with the previous one, and so on until the requisite 1,500 words are used up. The result is usually a weak, rambling essay.

There are, of course, no hard and fast rules about how to structure a philosophy essay. Again, it is a skill you develop through practice, and much will depend on the particular topic at hand. Nonetheless, it might be helpful to begin by developing an essay structure around the basic distinction between your exposition and your critical discussion (as discussed above). In this it will be important that you make clear who is putting forward which point, that is, make it clear whether you are presenting your own thoughts or are expounding someone else's. (Again, confusion in this regard is a common problem in student essays.) It can often help your structuring if you provide headings for different sections (possibly numbered or lettered). Again, this helps both your reader to follow your discussion and you to develop your thoughts. At each stage, show clearly the logical relations between and the reasons for your points, so that your reader can see clearly why you say what you say and can see clearly the development in your discussion.

Another key to structuring your essay can be found in the old adage "Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em. Tell 'em. Then tell 'em what you've told 'em", which provides you with a ready-made structure: Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion.

In your Introduction, first introduce the issues the essay is concerned with. In doing so, try to state briefly just what the problem is and (if there is space) why it is a problem. This also applies, of course, to issues covered in text-focused essay topics. Next, tell the reader what it is that you are going to do about those problems in the Main Body. This is usually done by giving a brief sketch or overview of the main points you will present, a "pre-capitulation", so to speak, of your essay's structure. This is one way of showing your reader that you have a grasp (indeed, it helps you get a grasp) of your essay as a structured and integrated whole, and gives them some idea of what to expect by giving them an idea of how you have decided to answer the question. Of course, for reasons of space, your Introduction might not be very long, but something along these lines is likely to be useful.

In your Main Body, do what you've said you'll do. Here is where you should present your exposition(s) and your critical discussion(s). Thus, it is here that the main philosophical substance of your essay is to be found. Of course, what that substance is and how you will present it will depend on the particular topic before you. But, whatever the topic, make clear at each stage just what it is you are doing. You can be quite explicit about this. (eg "I shall now present Descartes' ontological argument for the existence of God, as it is presented in his Fifth Meditation. There will be three stages to this presentation.") Don't think that such explicitness must be a sign of an unsophisticated thinker.

A distinct Conclusion is perhaps not always necessary, if your Main Body has clearly "played out" your argument. So you don't always have to present a grand summation or definitive judgement at the end. Still, often for your own sake, try to state to yourself what it is your essay has achieved and see if it would be appropriate to say so explicitly. Don't feel that you must come up with earth-shattering conclusions. Of course, utter banality or triviality are not good goals, either. Also, your essay doesn't always have to conclude with a "solution" to a problem. Sometimes, simply clarifying an issue or problem is a worthy achievement and can merit first-class honours. A good conclusion to a philosophy essay, then, will usually combine a realistic assessment of the ambit and cogency of its claims with a plausible proposal that those claims have some philosophical substance.

What you write in your essay should always be relevant to the question posed. This is another common problem in student essays, so continually ask yourself "Am I addressing the question here?" First-class answers to a question can vary greatly, but you must make sure that your essay responds to the question asked, even if you go on to argue that the question as posed is itself problematic. (eg "To ask ‘What is scientific method?' presupposes that science follows one basic method. However, I shall argue that there are, in fact, several different scientific methods and that these are neither unified nor consistent.") Be wary, however, of twisting a topic too far out of shape in order to fit your favoured theme. (You would be ill-advised, for example, to proceed thus: "What is scientific method? This is a question asked by many great minds. But what is a mind? In this essay, I shall discuss the views of Thomas Aquinas on the nature of mind.")

This requirement of relevance is not intended as an authoritarian constraint on your intellectual freedom. It is part of the skill of paying sustained and focused attention to something put before you - which is one of the most important skills you can develop at university. If you do have other philosophical interests that you want to pursue (such as Aquinas on mind), then please do pursue them, in addition to writing your essay on the set topic. At no stage does the requirement of relevance prevent you from pursuing your other interests.

Citing Philosophical "Authorities"

There might be occasions when you want to quote other philosophers and writers apart from when you are quoting them because they are the subject of your essay. There are two basic reasons why you might want to do this. First, you might quote someone because their words constitute a good or exemplary expression or articulation of an idea you are dealing with, whether as its proponent, critic, or simply its chronicler. (eg "As Nietzsche succinctly put the point, 'There are no moral phenomena at all, only a moral interpretation of phenomena'.*") You may or may not want to endorse the idea whose good expression you have quoted, but simply want to use the philosopher as a spokesperson for or example of that view. But be clear about what you think the quote means and be careful about what you are doing with the quote. It won't do all the work for you.

The second reason you might want to quote a philosopher is because you think their words constitute an "authoritative statement" of a view. Here you want to use the fact that, eg Bertrand Russell maintained that there are two kinds of knowledge of things (namely, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description) in support of your claim that there are two such kinds of knowledge of things. However, be very careful in doing this, for the nature of philosophical authority is not so simple here. That is to say, what really matters is not that Bertrand Russell the man held that view; what matters are his reasons for holding that view. So, when quoting philosophers for this second reason, be careful that you appreciate in what exactly the authority lies - which means that you should show that you appreciate why Russell maintained that thesis. Of course, you can't provide long arguments for every claim you make or want to make use of; every essay will have its enabling but unargued assumptions. But at least be clear about these. (eg "For the purposes of this essay, I shall adopt Russell's thesis* that ...").

* Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. R.J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [first German ed.1886]), Sec. 108.

* See Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967 [first pub. 1912]), Ch. 5.

Philosophy is by its nature a relatively abstract and generalising business. (Note that abstractness and generality are not the same thing. Nor do vagueness and obscurity automatically attend them.) Sometimes a longish series of general ideas and abstract reasonings can become difficult for the reader (and often the writer) to follow. It can often help, therefore, to use some concrete or specific examples in your discussion. (Note that there can be different levels of concreteness and specificity in examples.)

Examples can be taken from history, current events, literature, and so on, or can be entirely your own invention. Exactly what examples you employ and just how and why you use them will, of course, depend on the case. Some uses might be: illustration of a position, problem or idea to help make it clearer; evidence for, perhaps even proof of, a proposition; a counter-example; a case-study to be returned to at various points during the essay; or a problem for a theory or viewpoint to be applied to. Again, be clear about what the example is and how and why you use it. Be careful not to get distracted by, or bogged down in, your examples. Brevity is usually best.

English expression

There's another old saying: "If you can't say what you mean, then you can't mean what you say" - and this very much applies to philosophical writing. Thus, in writing philosophically, you must write clearly and precisely. This means that good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written, including its grammar and vocabulary. (See Section 9.3 for advice for people from non-English speaking backgrounds.) A high standard of writing skills is to be expected of Arts graduates. Indeed, this sort of skill will last longer than your memory of, for example, the three parts of the Platonic soul (though it is also hoped that some of the content of what you study will also stick). So use your time at university (in all your subjects) to develop these skills further.

Having a mastery of a good range of terms, being sensitive to the subtleties of their meaning, and being able to construct grammatically correct and properly punctuated sentences are essential to the clear articulation and development of your thoughts. Think of grammar, not as some old-fashioned set of rules of linguistic etiquette, but rather as the "internal logic" of a sentence, that is, as the relationships between the words within a sentence which enable them to combine to make sense.

Virtually all sentences in philosophical writing are declarative (ie. make statements), as opposed to interrogative, imperative or exclamatory types of sentences. There is some place, though, for interrogative sentences, ie. questions. (Note that, in contrast, this guide, which is not in the essay genre, contains many imperative sentences, ie. commands.) As you craft each (declarative) sentence in your essay, remember the basics of sentence construction. Make clear what the sentence is about (its subject) and what you are saying about it (the predicate). Make clear what the principal verb is in the predicate, since it is what usually does the main work in saying something about the subject. Where a sentence consists of more than one clause (as many do in philosophical writing), make clear what work each clause is doing. Attend closely, then, to each and every sentence you write so that its sense is clear and is the sense you intend it to have. Think carefully about what it is you want each particular sentence to do (in relation to both those sentences immediately surrounding it and the essay as a whole) and structure your sentence so that it does what you want it to do. To help you with your own sentence construction skills, when reading others' philosophical works (or indeed any writing) attend closely to the construction of each sentence so as to be alive to all the subtleties of the text.

Good punctuation is an essential part of sentence construction. Its role is to help to display the grammar of a sentence so that its meaning is clear. As an example of how punctuation can fundamentally change the grammar and, hence, meaning of a sentence, compare (i) "Philosophers, who argue for the identity of mind and brain, often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." and (ii) "Philosophers who argue for the identity of mind and brain often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." In the first sentence it is asserted (falsely, as it happens) that all philosophers argue for the identity of mind and brain; in the second, only some philosophers are said to argue for the identity of mind and brain. Only the punctuation differs in the two strings of identical words, and yet the meanings of the sentences are very different. Confusions over this sort of thing are common weaknesses in student essays, and leave readers asking themselves "What exactly is this student trying to say?"

It will be assumed that you can spell - which is not a matter of pressing the "spell-check" key on a word-processor. A good dictionary and a good thesaurus should always be within reach as you write your essay.

Also, try to shorten and simplify sentences where you can do so without sacrificing the subtlety and inherent complexity of the discussion. Where a sentence is becoming too long or complex, it is likely that too many ideas are being bundled up together too closely. Stop and separate your ideas out. If an idea is a good or important one, it will usually deserve its own sentence.

Your "intra-sentential logic" should work very closely with the "inter-sentential logic" of your essay, ie. with the logical relations between your sentences. (This "inter-sentential logic" is what "logic" is usually taken to refer to.) For example, to enable sentences P and Q to work together to yield sentence R as a conclusion, you need to make clear that there are elements within P and Q which connect up to yield R. Consider the following example: "Infanticide is the intentional killing of a human being. However, murder is regarded by all cultures as morally abhorrent. Therefore, people who commit infanticide should be punished." This doesn't work as an argument, because the writer has not constructed sentences which provide the connecting concepts in the various subjects and predicates, even though each sentence is grammatically correct (and possibly even true).

If you are concerned to write not only clearly and precisely, but also with some degree of grace and style (and I hope you are), it's still best to get the clarity and precision right first, in a plain, straightforward way, and then to polish things up afterwards to get the style and grace you want. But don't sacrifice clarity and precision for the sake of style and grace - be prepared to sacrifice that beautiful turn of phrase if its presence is going to send your discussion down an awkward path of reasoning. Aim to hit the nail on the head rather than make a loud bang. What you are likely to find, however, is that a philosophy essay which really is clear and precise will have a large measure of grace and style in its very clarity and precision.

Remember that obscurity is not a sign of profundity. (Some profound thought may well be difficult to follow, but that doesn't mean that one can achieve profundity merely through producing obscure, difficult-to-read writing.) Your marker is interested in what's actually in your essay, not what's possibly inside your head (or indeed what's possibly in some book you happen to have referred to in your essay). So avoid hinting at or alluding suggestively to ideas, especially where they are meant to do some important work in your essay. Instead, lay them out explicitly and directly. Of course, you won't have space to spell out every single idea, so work out which ideas do the most important work and make sure that you at least get those ideas clearly articulated. In expounding a text or problem that ultimately just is vague, muddled, or obscure, try to convey such vagueness, muddle or obscurity clearly, rather than simply reproducing it in your own writing. That is, be clear that and how a text or problem has such features, and then perhaps do your best to make matters clearer.

Despite these stern pronouncements, don't be afraid of sometimes saying things which happen to sound a little odd, if you have tried various formulations and think you have now expressed your ideas just as they should be expressed. Philosophy is often an exploratory business, and new ways of seeing and saying things can sometimes be a part of that exploration.

The need for clarity and precision in philosophical writing sometimes means that you need to stipulate your own meaning for a term. When you want to use a particular word in a particular way for the purposes of your essay - as a "technical term" - be clear about it. (eg "In this essay, I shall intend ‘egoism' to mean ...") Also, be consistent in your technical meanings, or else note when you are not. Be wary, though, of inventing too many neologisms or being too idiosyncratic in your stipulations.

With regard to what "authorial pronoun" to adopt in a philosophy essay, it's standard to write plainly in the first person singular ("I", "me", "my", etc.) rather than use the royal "we" (as in "we shall argue that ..."), or the convoluted quasi-legal indirect form ("It is submitted that ..."), or the scientific objectivity of a physics experimental report. Nonetheless, stick closer to "I argue", "I suggest", "my definition", etc., than to "I wish", "I hate", "my feeling", etc. A philosophy essay is still something more intellectual and formal than a personal reminiscence, polemic, or proclamation. In terms of audience, it's probably best to think of your reader as someone who is intelligent, open to discussion and knows a little about the topic you're writing on, but perhaps is not quite clear or decided about the issues, or needs convincing of the view you want to put forward, or is curious about what you think about the issues.

Try also to use non-discriminatory language, ie. language which does not express or imply inequality of worth between people on the basis of sex, gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on. As you write, you will be considering carefully your choice of words to express your thoughts. You will almost always find that it is possible to avoid discriminatory language by rephrasing your sentences.

Other things to avoid:

• waffle and padding
• vagueness and ambiguity
• abbreviations (this guide I'm writing isn't an eg. of what's req'd. in a phil. essay)
• colloquialisms (which can really get up your reader's nose)
• writing whose syntax merely reflects the patterns of informal speech
• unnecessary abstractness or indirectness
• unexplained jargon
• flattery and invective
• overly-rhetorical questions (do you really need me to tell you what they are?) and other flourishes

There are many guides to good writing available. Anyone who writes (whether in the humanities or the sciences, whether beginners or experienced professionals) will do well to have some on hand. Most good bookshops and libraries will have some. Among the most consulted works are (check for the latest editions):

• J. M. Williams and G. C. Colomb, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)
• W. Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 2000)
• E. Gowers, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987)
• R. W. Burchfield, ed., The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Pam Peters, The Cambridge Australian English Style Guide (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
• Australian Government Publishing Service, Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 5th ed. (Canberra: AGPS, 1995)

Vocabulary of logical argument

Closely related to the above points about English expression is the importance of having a good grasp of what can rather generally be called "the vocabulary of logical argument". These sorts of terms are crucial in articulating clearly and cogently a logical line of argument. Such argumentation will, of course, be of central importance in whatever discipline you are studying, indeed in any sphere of life that requires effective thinking and communication. I have in mind terms such as these (grouped a little loosely):

all, any, every, most, some, none, a, an, the that, this, it, he, she, they if . . . , then. . . ; if and only if . . . , then . . . ; unless either . . . or . . .; neither . . . nor . . . not, is, are therefore, thus, hence, so, because, since, follows, entails, implies, infer, consequence, conditional upon moreover, furthermore which, that, whose and, but, however, despite, notwithstanding, nevertheless, even, though, still possibly, necessarily, can, must, may, might, ought, should true, false, probable, certain sound, unsound, valid, invalid, fallacious, supported, proved, contradicted, rebutted, refuted, negated logical, illogical, reasonable, unreasonable, rational, irrational assumption, premise, belief, claim, proposition argument, reason, reasoning, evidence, proof

Most of these are quite simple terms, but they are crucial in argumentative or discursive writing of all kinds. (Many are themselves the subject of study in logic, a branch of philosophy). The sloppy use of these sorts of terms is another common weakness in students' philosophy essays. Pay close and careful attention to how you employ them. Moreover, pay close and careful attention to how the authors you read use them. For further discussion of some of these terms and others, see:

• Basic Philosophical Vocabulary, prepared by the staff of the Philosophy Department and available from the programs Office
• Wesley C. Salmon, Logic, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973)
• Antony Flew, Thinking About Thinking (London: Fontana, 1985)
• Graham Priest, Logic: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)
• Joel Rudinow and Vincent E. Barry, Invitation to Critical Thinking, 4th ed. (Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace, 1999)

Revising your essay

It is virtually essential that you write a first draft of your essay and then work on that draft to work towards your finished essay. Indeed, several drafts may well be necessary in order to produce your best possible work. It is a rare philosopher indeed who can get things perfectly right on the first attempt, so be prepared to revise and re-develop what you write. Don't be too precious about what you have written, if it appears that it should be sacrificed in the revision process. There is usually a very marked difference between essays which are basically first draft rush-jobs done the night before they are due and those which have been revised and polished. Give yourself time to revise by starting writing early on. For most philosophy students, the greater part of the work in essay writing is in the writing, not in the preliminary researches and planning stages. So be wary of thinking "I've done all the research. I only need to write up my notes, which I can do the night before the essay's due". This is likely to lead to a weak, perhaps non-existent, essay (and very likely a sleepless night).

Stick to the word limit given for your essay. Why are word limits imposed? First, to give the markers a fair basis for comparing student essays. Second, to give you the opportunity to practise the discipline of working creatively under constraints. Skill in this discipline will stand you in very good stead in any sphere where circumstances impose limitations. Again, word limits are not constraints on your intellectual freedom. Outside your essay you are free to write without limit. But even there you'll probably find that your creativity is improved by working under a self-imposed discipline.

As a general rule, most student essays that fall well short of the word limit are weak or lazy attempts at the task, and most essays that go well over the limit are not much stronger or the result of much harder work - the extra length is often due to unstructured waffle or padding which the writer hasn't thought enough about so as to edit judiciously. If you structure your essay clearly, you'll find it easier to revise and edit, whether in order to contract or expand it. ("Hmm, let's see: section 2 is much longer than section 4, but is not as important, so I'll cut it down. And I should expand section 3, because that's a crucial step. And I can shift that third paragraph in the Introduction to the Conclusion.")

Plagiarism and originality

Plagiarism is essentially a form of academic dishonesty or cheating. At university level, such dishonesty is not tolerated and is dealt with severely, usually by awarding zero marks for a plagiarised essay or, in some cases, dismissing a student from the university.

When you submit your essay, you are implicitly stating that the essay is your own original and independent work, that you have not submitted the same work for assessment in another subject, and that where you have made use of other people's work, this is properly acknowledged. If you know that this is not in fact the case, you are being dishonest. (In a number of university departments, students are in fact required to sign declarations of academic honesty.)

Plagiarism is the knowing but unacknowledged use of work by someone else (including work by another student, and indeed oneself - see below) and which is being presented as one's own work. It can take a number of forms, including:

• copying : exactly reproducing another's words
• paraphrasing : expressing the meaning of another's words in different words
• summarising : reproducing the main points of another's argument
• cobbling : copying, paraphrasing or summarising the work of a number of different people and piecing them together to produce one body of text
• submitting one's own work when it has already been submitted for assessment in another subject
• collusion : presenting an essay as your own independent work when in fact it has been produced, in whole or part, in collusion with one or more other people

None of the practices of copying, paraphrasing, summarizing or cobbling is wrong in itself, but when one or more is done without proper acknowledgment it constitutes plagiarism. Therefore, all sources must be adequately and accurately acknowledged in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.) Plagiarism from the internet in particular can be a temptation for a certain kind of student. However, be warned: there is a number of very good internet and software tools for identifying plagiarism.

With regard to collusion, it's undoubtedly often very helpful to discuss one's work with others, be it other students, family members, friends or teachers. Indeed, philosophy thrives on dialogue. However, don't kid yourself that you would simply be extending that process if you were to ask your interlocutor to join with you in the writing of your essay, whether by asking them to tell you what you should write or to write down some of their thoughts for you to reproduce in your essay. At the end of the day, you must be the one to decide what goes into your essay.

Originality

Students sometimes worry about whether they will be able to develop "original ideas", especially in light of the fact that nearly every philosophical idea one comes up with seems to have been thought of before by someone else. There is no denying that truly original work in philosophy is well rewarded, but your first aim should be to develop ideas that you think are good and not merely different. If, after arguing for what you believe is right, and arguing in way that you think is good, you then discover that someone else has had the same idea, don't throw your work away - you should feel vindicated to some extent that your thinking has been congruent with that of another (possibly great) philosopher. (If you have not yet handed your essay in when you make this discovery, make an appropriately placed note to that effect.) Don't be fooled, however, into thinking that plagiarism can be easily passed off as congruent thinking. Of course, if that other philosopher's ideas have helped you to develop your ideas, then this is not a matter of congruent ideas but rather of derivative ideas, and this must be adequately acknowledged. If, after developing your ideas, you discover that they are original, then that is an added bonus. But remember that it is more important to be a good philosopher than an original one.

Quotations, footnotes, endnotes and bibliography

Quotations in your essay should be kept to a minimum. The markers know the central texts pretty well already and so don't need to have pages thereof repeated in front of them. Of course, some quotation will usually be important and useful - sometimes essential - in both exposition and critical discussion.

When you quote the words of someone else directly, you must make the quotation clearly distinct from your own text, using quotation marks . (eg "Descartes said that 'it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.'* He makes this claim …" - where the words quoted from Descartes are in 'single quotation marks'. Note that it is relatively arbitrary whether one uses 'single' or "double" quotation marks for "first order" quotations, but whichever style you adopt, use it consistently in the one essay.) Alternatively, where the quoted passage is greater than three lines, put the quoted words in a separate indented paragraph , so that your essay would look like this:

In his First Meditation , Descartes argues as follows:

Whatever I have up till now accepted as most true I have acquired either from the senses or through the senses. But from time to time I have found that the senses deceive, and it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.* In this essay I shall argue that prudence does not in fact require us to distrust our senses and that Descartes's sceptical method is therefore seriously flawed.

In both cases, the quotations must be given proper referencingin a footnote or endnote.

When you are not quoting another person directly, but are still making use of their work - as in indirect quotations (eg "Descartes says that it is wise not to trust something that has deceived us before"*), paraphrases, summaries, and cobblings - you must still acknowledge your debts, using footnotes or endnotes.

* Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy , trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 [first French ed., 1641]), p. 12.

Footnotes and endnotes

Footnotes appear at the foot of the same page on which the cited material appears, clearly separated from the main body of the text, each one clearly numbered. Endnotes appear at the end of the essay, again clearly separated from the main body of text, numbered and headed "Endnotes" or "Notes". Either method is acceptable, but you should choose one and stick with it throughout the one essay.

Below are some examples of how to put the relevant referencing information in footnotes and endnotes. This is not intended as an exercise in pedantry, but as a guide to how to provide the information needed for adequate referencing. The reason we provide this information is to enable our readers to find the sources we use in order to verify them and to allow them to pursue the material further if it interests them. In your own researches you will come to value good referencing in the texts you read as a helpful source of further references on a topic. Again, it is this sort of research skill that an Arts graduate will be expected to have mastered.

There are various conventions for writing up footnotes and endnotes. The Philosophy Department does not require that any particular convention be followed, only that you be consistent in your use of the convention that you do choose. For other conventions see the style guides mentioned above, or simply go to some texts published by reputable publishers and see what formats they employ.

Imagine, then, that the following are endnotes at the end of your essay. I will explain them below.

• James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), p. 25.
• Philippa Foot, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack W. Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), p. 155.
• Ibid., p. 160.
• Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed., 1785]), p. 63.
• Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub. 1651]),p. 65.
• Rachels, The Elements, p. 51.
• Peter Winch, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965), p. 212.
• Antony Duff, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003, sec. 6.

Notes explained

• This is your first reference to a book called The Elements of Moral Philosophy. The title is given in full and in italics. If you are unable to use italics, then you should underline the title. The book's author is James Rachels. It's the 2nd edition of that book, which was published in New York, by the publishers McGraw-Hill, in 1993. The page you have referred to in your main text is page 25
• This is your first reference to Philippa Foot's article, "Moral Relativism", the title of which is put in "quotation marks". This article appeared in a book (title in italics) which is an anthology of different articles, and which was edited by Krausz and Meiland (names in full). The rest is in the same style as note (1)
• "Ibid." is short for "ibidem", which means "in the same place" in Latin. Use it on its own when you want to refer to exactly the same work and page number as in the immediately preceding note. So here the reference is again to Foot's article at page 155
• Ditto, except this time you refer to a different page in Foot's article, namely page 160
• This is reference to a book by Kant. Same book details as per note (1), except that, because this is a translation, you include the translator's name, and the date of the first edition in the original language
• This is a book reference again, so it's the same as note (1), except that, because it's an old book, you include the date of the original edition. (How old does a book have to be before it merits this treatment? There is no settled view. Note, though, that this convention is not usually followed for ancient authors)
• Here you are referring to Rachels' book again, but, because you are not in the very next note after a reference to it, you can't use "ibid.". Simply give the author's surname and a short title of the book, plus page reference. There is also a common alternative to this, whereby you give the surname, and write "op. cit." (which is short for "opere citato", which is Latin for "in the work already cited") and page reference (eg "Rachels, op. cit., p. 51.") Your reader then has to scan back over the notes to see what that "op." was exactly. The first option (author plus short title) is usually easier on the reader
• This is a reference to an article by Peter Winch in a journal called The Monist. The article's title is in "quotes", the journal title is in italics. The volume of the journal is 49, the year of publication is 1965, the page referred to is p. 212
• This is a reference to an article in the internet-based Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The article is titled "Legal Punishment" and was written by Antony Duff. The Encyclopedia was edited by Edward N. Zalta. Note that I have basically followed the mode of citation that the Encyclopedia itself recommends. (This is one sign of the site being a reputable one. Where a site makes such a recommendation, it's best to follow it.) I have, however, also added the date on which the article was retrieved from the site, and put the author's given name first, to be consistent with the other footnotes. I have also added the reference to section 6, in an effort to be more precise as to where in the article the material I used came from. Since web pages aren't numbered in the manner of hard copy works, it will help if you are able to refer to some other feature, such as paragraphs or sections, so as to pin-point your reference. In the absence of a site recommending a mode of citation to its own material, the basic information needed for adequate citation of internet-based material is (where identifiable) the author, the document title, the year the document was created, the website name, the uniform resource locator (URL) in <arrow-brackets>, date of retrieval, and a pin-point reference*

* I am here following the mode of citation of internet materials recommended in Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, Australian Guide to Legal Citation , 2nd ed. (Melbourne: Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, 2002), pp. 70-73. I have, though, added the desirability of a pin-point reference.

Bibliography

At the end of your essay (after your endnotes, if used) you should list in a bibliography all of the works referred to in your notes, as well as any other works you consulted in researching and writing your essay. The list should be in alphabetical order, going by authors' surnames. The format should be the same as for your notes, except that you drop the page references and should put surnames first. So the bibliography of our mock-essay above would look like this:

• Duff, Antony, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003
• Foot, Philippa, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982)
• Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub.1651])
• Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals , trans. H.J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed. 1785])
• Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed., (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993)
• Winch, Peter, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965)

Presentation of essays and seeking advice

Generally, you should present an essay that is legible (hand-writing is OK, but typed or word-processed essays are preferable), in English, on one side of pieces of paper that are somewhere in the vicinity of A4 size and are fixed together . You should attach a completed Cover Sheet provided by the Philosophy program. Plastic document covers, spiral binding and other forms of presentational paraphernalia are not necessary (nor are they usually even desirable, as they mostly just get in the marker's way).

Late essays

Late essays are penalised . (For details of penalties consult the Philosophy program's notice board.)

Essays not handed in

Essays not handed in at all get zero marks. An essay that is handed in but gets a mark below 50 (and so is technically a "failed" essay) still gets some marks. (At least, it will so long as it's not so extremely late that the deducted marks wipe out all the marks it would have received if handed in on time.) All marks received for your essay (whether pass or fail) go toward your final score in the subject. Therefore, even if you think your essay is bound to fail (but please let your marker be the judge of that), or the due date has already passed, or both, it is still in your interests to hand your essay in .

Tutors and lecturers

Philosophy staff are not there just to be listened to by you; they are also there to listen to you. So don't hesitate to contact your tutor or lecturer to discuss questions or problems you have concerning your work.

If you have a legitimate excuse, you may be granted an extension on the due date for your essay by the lecturer in charge. Similarly, special consideration may also be granted when illness or other circumstances adversely affect your work. Applications for special consideration are made online via the Special Consideration web page.

Student counselling

Some personal or non-philosophical academic difficulties you might have you might want to discuss with someone other than your tutor or lecturer. Student Counselling and Psychological Services are there for you to discuss all sorts of problems you might encounter. Please consult your student diary for details on the counselling service.

English language assistance

As noted above, good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written. If you are from a non-English speaking background and are having difficulties with your English expression in an academic context, you might like to make use of the services provided by Student Services Academic Skills . Many native English speakers, too, can benefit from short "refresher" courses and workshops run by the Centre. Please consult your student diary for details about this service.

A bit on Philosophy exams

Essays of the sort discussed so far in this guide are not the only form of assessment in the Philosophy program - examinations are also set. What is to be said about them?

First, not much that is different from what's been said above about philosophy essays. This is because what you write in a philosophy exam is none other than a philosophy essay . Have a look at past philosophy exam papers, in the Gibson and Baillieu libraries, to get a feel for them. The only basic difference between essays and exams is the matter of what constraints you're working under. Essays have word limits; exams have time limits . Again, stick to them. (Actually, you'll be made to stick to them by the exam invigilators.)

It's best, then, to think about how long to spend writing on an exam essay topic, rather than about how many words to write on it. Simple arithmetic will tell you how much time to spend on each exam question. (eg if you have a 2-hour exam and have to answer 3 questions, each worth one-third of the exam mark, then spend 40 minutes on each question.) Avoid the trap of "borrowing time" from a later question in order to perfect your answer to an earlier question, and then working faster on the later questions to catch up on lost time - this is likely to get you in a tangle. There are no word limits in philosophy exam essays, but don't think that the more you scrawl across the page, the more marks you'll get. Nonetheless, use the time you've got so as to maximise your display of your philosophical understanding and skills in answering the question.

Planning and structuring remain very important in exam essays. With regard to the niceties of footnotes, endnotes and bibliographies, etc., these are not necessary, so don't waste time on these. However, if you quote or refer to a specific passage from a text, do indicate clearly that it is a quotation or reference. (The principle of being clear as to who is saying what remains central.) If you have the reference handy, just put it briefly in the text of your exam essay. (eg "As Descartes says in Meditation I (p. 12), . . ." or "'[I]t is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once' (Descartes, Meditation I, p. 12)".) Generally speaking, you will show your familiarity with any relevant texts by how you handle them in your discussion. This is also true for your non-exam essays.

Your preparation for the exam should have been done well before entering the exam hall. Note that various subjects have restrictions on what texts and other items can be brought into the exam hall. (Consult the Philosophy program's notice board for details.) Many subjects will have "closed book" exams. Even if an exam is "open book", if you are properly prepared, you should not need to spend much time at all consulting texts or notes during the exam itself.

You won't have time for redrafting and revising your exam essay (which makes planning and structuring your answers before you start writing all the more important). If you do want to delete something, just cross it out clearly. Don't waste time with liquid paper or erasers. Write legibly . Don't wr. "point form" sav. time. Diff. kn. mean. use incomp. sent.

Finally, read the instructions at the beginning of the exam paper. They are important. (eg it's not a good strategy to answer two questions from Part A, when the Instructions tell you to answer two questions, one from Part A and one from Part B.) Note the (somewhat quaint) University practice of starting Reading Time some time before the stated time for the exam. Philosophy exams usually have 15 minutes of reading time. (Check for each of your exams.) So, if your exam timetable says the exam is at 2.15 pm, with reading time of 15 minutes, then the reading time starts at 2.00 pm and the writing time starts at 2.15pm - so get to the exam hall well before 2.00 pm. Reading time is very important. Use it to decide which questions you'll answer and to start planning your answers.

Checklist of questions

• Do I understand the essay question ? Do I know when the essay is due ?
• Do I know which texts to consult? Do I know where to find them?
• Have I made useful notes from my reading of the relevant texts?
• Have I made a plan of how I'll approach the question in my essay?
• Have I given myself enough time to draft and redraft my essay?
• Have I written a clearly structured essay? Is it clear what each stageis doing? Do I do what I say I'll do in my Introduction?
• Have I clearly distinguished exposition and critical discussion ? Have I given a fair and accurate account of the author(s) in question?
• Is my response to the topic relevant ? Do I answer the question? Have I kept my essay within the general bounds of the topic?
• Have I displayed a good grasp of the vocabulary of logical argument ? Are my arguments logically valid and sound? Are my claims supported by reasons ? Am I consistent within my essay?
• Is my English expression clear and precise ? Are my grammar, punctuation and spelling correct? Have I said what I meant to say? Is my writing legible?
• Have I fully acknowledged all my sources in footnotes or endnotes? Are my quotations accurate? Have I included a bibliography ?
• Do I need to revise any part of my essay again?
• Have I made a copy or photocopy of my essay for myself?
• Have I kept the receipt for my handed-in essay?

Philosophy Quotes

Philosophy Quotes – Quest for God Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – English statesman and leader in empirical philosophy – Author of The Advancement of Learning and Novum Organum, foundational works for the modern scientific method. “It is true, that a little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy brings about man’s mind to religion: For while the mind of man looketh upon second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them, and go no further; but when it beholdeth the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs fly to Providence and Deity.” - Sir Francis Bacon (Bacon, F. The Essays of Lord Bacon, Longman & Green, 1875, 64.) Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – German philosopher, scientist, and one of the greatest modern thinkers – Known for powerful works such as Critique of Pure Reason and Critique of Practical Reason. “The sum total of all possible knowledge of God is not possible for a human being, not even through a true revelation. But it is one of the worthiest inquiries to see how far our reason can go in the knowledge of God.” - Immanuel Kant (Kant, I. Lectures on Philosophical Theology, Cornell University Press, 1978, 23.) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) – French philosopher, political theorist, and primary writer during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe – Known for powerful works such as The Social Contract and Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts. “An intelligent being, is the active principle of all things. One must have renounced all common sense to doubt it, and it is a waste of time to try to prove such self evident truth.” - Jean Jacques Rousseau Burgelin, P. La Philosophie de l’ Existance de Jean Jacques Rousseau, Librarie Philosophique J. Vrin., 1973, 407.)

Compliments of THE GREAT PURSUIT: The Message for Those In Search of God, by Eugene H. Peterson and Randall Niles (NavPress 2007).

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GRACIOUS QUOTES

68 life philosophy quotes (wisdom & knowledge), top 21 philosophical quotes about life.

The greatest blessings of mankind are within us and within our reach. A wise man is content with his lot, whatever it may be, without wishing for what he has not.” Seneca

21 Most Inspiring Life Philosophy Quotes And Sayings

26 Inspiring Life Quotes by Famous Philosophers

Not many people enjoy life philosophy quotes because they are painful to read.

I realized that the few who enjoy life philosophies are the ones who excel in life.

Many of the best philosophical quotes are sort of tough love. They are hard to read but essential if you want to have a clear direction.

Here’s a simple test: Imagine going to an interview and someone asked you, “what is your philosophy of life?”

How easily could you answer that question?

Life philosophy doesn’t always tell you what you want to know. It tells you what you ought and need to know.

Here are some of the best philosophical quotes to help you ponder so you can make the most of the reality of life.

(MUST READ)

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• Top 84 Dale Carnegie Quotes to Motivate & Uplift You

Top 55 Henry David Thoreau Quotes (REFLECTION)

133 of the best paul jarvis quotes (company of one).

101 Personal Philosophy Examples (Copy and Paste Ideas)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

Personal philosophy refers to an individual’s foundational beliefs, values, and attitudes that guide his or her perspectives, decisions, and behaviors (Covey, 1989).

These integral elements of a person’s philosophy often shape and mold their characters, propelling them through life with their distinct take on existence, perspectives on truth, and individual ethos (Prior, 2015).

Our personal philosophy is based on our core values (aka terminal values ), which are those things that we hold most dear and that are fundamental to our personality and character.

Consider the case of Steve Jobs (2011), Apple’s co-founder, whose personal philosophy was famously rooted in Zen Buddhism with an unwavering belief in intuition . His philosophy was delineated by his renowned quote at Stanford University: “The only way to do great work is to love what you do”.

This dictum underscores Jobs’s individual belief system , his viewpoint of success, and the guiding principles for his life’s work . Evidently illustrating how personal philosophy is both a driving force and a beacon of direction in an individual’s life.

Personal Philosophy Examples

Famous people’s personal philosophies, 1. steve jobs.

“Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish.”

As noted above, the co-founder of Apple Inc, Steve Jobs, was heavily influenced by Zen Buddhism. Besides the quote I already gave, Jobs would often quote another one based on Buddhism: “Stay hungry, Stay Foolish”. This idea underscores the importance of continuously seeking knowledge and not being afraid to take risks. Jobs delivered this philosophy in his famous commencement address at Stanford University in 2005 (Jobs, 2005). This personal mantra shaped his pioneering innovations that revolutionized communication and technology.

2. Bill Gates

“Be Patient”

The founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates, emphasizes patience as a key defining feature of his philosophy. He believes that change operates on a longer timeframe than we may initially anticipate and that great works take time (Gates, 2013). This philosophy saturates Gates’s philanthropy efforts, where his focus primarily lies in long-term, foundational improvements to global health and education. 

3. Richard Branson

“Screw it, let’s do it”

The flamboyant entrepreneur Richard Branson lives by his guiding philosophy of “Screw it, let’s do it”. This mantra reflects his belief in jumping at opportunities even when the outcome may be unknown (Branson, 2012). Branson’s multi-industry success with his Virgin brand is a testament to his willingness to defy conventional wisdom through his adventurous business ventures. 

4. Maya Angelo

“When people show you who they are, believe them”

The acclaimed poet Maya Angelou deeply held onto the philosophy “When people show you who they are, believe them”. This philosophy emphasizes the importance of understanding people’s character based on their actions rather than their words (Angelou, 2013). Angelou’s insightful poetry and autobiographies often encompass the theme of human nature and the importance of personal integrity.

5. Jeff Bezos

“It’s better to invent than to copy”

The founder of Amazon, Jeff Bezos, thrives on his philosophy “It’s better to invent than to copy”. He believes in the power of originality and innovation instead of conforming to conventional paths (Bezos, 2016). This belief has been implemented into Amazon’s corporate culture which revolves around exploration and inventiveness.

6. Mark Zuckerberg

“Move fast and break things”

Co-founder and CEO of Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg, follows the philosophy “Move fast and break things”. This mantra represents his focus on rapid innovation, even if it means making mistakes along the way (Zuckerberg, 2012). It captures the essence of Facebook’s initial growth strategy and its determination to push the boundaries of technological progress.

7. Oprah Winfrey

“The biggest adventure you can take is to live the life of your dreams”

Oprah Winfrey, the media mogul, ascribes to the philosophy “The biggest adventure you can take is to live the life of your dreams”. Her philosophy encourages people to strive for their aspirations despite potential obstacles (Winfrey, 2014). As a beloved television host and philanthropist, she exemplifies the philosophy through her career trajectory rising from poverty to become one of the most influential women in the world.

8. Einstein

“Imagination is everything”

Much of Albert Einstein’s philosophy can be contained in the quote “Imagination is everything”. He held that imaginative thought was more crucial than detailed knowledge as it leads to innovation and progress (Einstein, 2011). This philosophy was a driving force behind his ground-breaking physics discoveries, reinforcing the power of imaginative intelligence.

9. Nelson Mandela

“I never lose. I either win or learn”

The first black President of South Africa and anti-apartheid revolutionary, Nelson Mandela, maintained the philosophy “I never lose. I either win or learn”. This greatly shaped his attitude towards persisting in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds during the fight for racial equality (Mandela, 2010). It also underscores Mandela’s belief in the value of learning from adversity rather than viewing it as a failure.

10. Walt Disney

“All our dreams can come true, if we have the courage to pursue them”

Walt Disney, the pioneer of the American animation industry, adamantly believed in the motto “All our dreams can come true, if we have the courage to pursue them”. This philosophy emphasizes the power of determination and bravery in the realization of one’s dreams. It resonates throughout Disney’s legacy of imaginative storytelling and innovative moviemaking.

Personal Philosophy Ideas

1. Have a Growth Mindset Life is a continuous learning experience and challenges are our greatest teachers. Embracing this philosophy means perceiving setbacks as opportunities to grow, not as insurmountable barriers.”

2. Pursue Knowledge “The essence of human progress lies in the relentless pursuit of knowledge. To follow this philosophy, one must bear an insatiable thirst for learning, always seeking to expand their intellectual horizons.”

3. Respect for All Living Things “My philosophy is rooted in a deep appreciation for the interconnectedness of all life forms. Respect should not be exclusive to humanity but extended to every living organism, acknowledging the vital role it plays in Earth’s ecosystem.”

4. Keep an Open Mind “Life’s richest opportunities often sprout from seeds of difference. By practicing an open mind, one positions themselves for growth, improvement, and innovation borne of diverse ideas and opinions.”

5. Seek to Understand Before being Understood “Understanding generates empathy and in a world rife with divisive language and behavior, empathy is paramount. This philosophy beckons us to listen actively , to engage genuinely in the dialogue of life.

6. Pursuit of Personal Freedom “Freedom is not simply the absence of captivity; it is the robust expression of one’s identity and the power to make choices. To chase personal freedom is to relentlessly pursue self-determination and personal authenticity.”

7. Gratitude is the Key to Happiness “Happiness does not depend on the grandeur of our possessions, but on the depth of our gratitude. This philosophy teaches us to express sincere gratitude for our blessings, even the most inconspicuous ones.”

8. Trust but Verify “Trust plays a linchpin role in cultivating genuine relationships. However, maintaining a level of discernment, “to trust but verify,” keeps us on a solid footing, fusing trust with pragmatism.”

9. Live in the Moment “Amidst the hustle of life, we often forget to live in the present. Appreciating the current moment, absorbing its raw reality, is essential to experiencing life in its purest form.”

10. Integrity is Non-Negotiable “Integrity is my immovable cornerstone, the compass guiding my every interaction. It is a commitment to remain honest and ethical, even in the face of adversity or temptation.”

11. Everyone Has Something to Teach You “From the janitor sweeping the floor to the professor delivering a lecture, everyone has valuable knowledge to share. Being open to learn from all encounters magnifies our wisdom and cultivates humility.”

12. Humility Goes a Long Way “Regardless of my accomplishments or social standing, humility is my chosen companion. It keeps my ego in check and fosters genuine connections with individuals from diverse backgrounds.”

13. Don’t Let Fear of Failure Hold You Back “Rather than a crippling force, I regard fear of failure as a stepping stone towards success. It is a philosophy that encourages me to take risks, embracing failures as poignant life lessons.”

14. Aim to be Better, not Perfect “Striving for perfection imprisons us in a perpetual cycle of dissatisfaction. Meanwhile, aiming to improve incrementally, to be better today than yesterday, leads to wholesome progress and contentment.”

15. Be Responsible and Reliable “Responsibility and reliability are the pivot upon which successful relationships rotate. By upholding these virtues, I become a dependable ally and an accountable human being.”

Read Also: Personal Mission Statement Examples

Complete List of 101 Personal Philosophies for the Taking

• Pursuit of knowledge.
• Respect for all living things.
• Strive for balance in all areas of life.
• Always be curious and open-minded.
• Seek to understand before being understood.
• Focus on continual self-improvement.
• Kindness above all.
• Embrace change and adaptability.
• Pursuit of personal freedom.
• Respect and value diversity.
• Gratitude is the key to happiness.
• Life is about experiences, not possessions.
• Emphasize compassion and empathy.
• Encourage collaboration and teamwork.
• Strive for sustainability and environmental stewardship.
• Find joy in simplicity.
• Trust but verify.
• Practice mindfulness and be present.
• Encourage creativity and original thinking.
• Integrity is non-negotiable.
• Practice patience and forgiveness.
• Everyone has something to teach you.
• Believe in the power of positivity.
• Health is wealth.
• Promote honesty and transparency.
• Courage in the face of adversity.
• Embrace life’s imperfections.
• Foster a community spirit.
• Make decisions out of love, not fear.
• Humility goes a long way.
• Practice self-compassion.
• Prioritize mental health.
• Respect personal boundaries.
• Promote freedom of expression.
• Stand up against injustice.
• Cultivate resilience.
• Seek truth in all things.
• Be a lifelong learner.
• Encourage innovation and new ideas.
• Work smarter, not harder.
• Find value in every situation, good or bad.
• Practice active listening.
• Growth comes from stepping out of your comfort zone.
• Maintain work-life balance.
• Love unconditionally.
• Celebrate every success, no matter how small.
• Prioritize personal relationships.
• Embrace vulnerability .
• Keep an open heart and mind.
• Regular self-reflection leads to personal growth .
• Strive for excellence, not perfection.
• Find and follow your passion.
• Take responsibility for your actions.
• Value the process, not just the outcome.
• Believe in the power of kindness.
• Embrace and learn from failures.
• Always be humble and grounded.
• Be a problem solver, not a complainer.
• Choose peace over conflict.
• Create more than you consume.
• Advocate for those who can’t advocate for themselves.
• Leave things better than you found them.
• Believe in the power of unity.
• Invest in personal growth.
• Embrace diversity and inclusivity.
• Seek first to understand, then to be understood.
• Prioritize authenticity over popularity.
• Don’t let fear of failure hold you back.
• Keep a healthy sense of humor.
• Encourage and support others.
• Embrace lifelong learning .
• Be patient and persistent.
• Invest in relationships.
• Do what makes you happy.
• Value people over things.
• Focus on the positive.
• Stand up for what you believe in.
• Remain open-minded.
• Trust your intuition.
• Aim to be better, not perfect.
• Always tell the truth.
• Help others when you can.
• Stay grounded in the present moment.
• Prioritize self-care.
• Cultivate inner peace.
• Be responsible and reliable.
• Strive for equality.
• Learn from the past, but don’t dwell on it.
• Make every day meaningful.
• Aim to inspire others.
• Believe in yourself.
• Live with integrity.
• Make the world a better place.
• Don’t take life too seriously.
• Surround yourself with positive people.
• Practice mindfulness.
• Embrace change as a part of life.
• Celebrate individuality.
• Keep a curious mind.
• Live in alignment with your values.
• Be your own biggest fan.

Writing down your own personal philosophy is an excellent exercise in helping you to clarify your core values, moral values , and goals in life. I’d recommend trying to narrow them down to three or four or five. Then use the five Why’s strategy to zoom-in on why you have this philosophy: what is is at your core that guides your personal philosophy? Those core things at the end of the ‘why’ chain is your set of terminal values, and they represent who you are. It’s important to have this at the heart of all our actions so we live a life of integrity.

Furthermore, it’s worthwhile re-examining your core values every six months. They change over time as we mature and our lives change and our priorities shift .

Angelou, M. (2013). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations . New York: Penguin.

Bezos, J. (2016). Re: 2016 Shareholder Letter. seccdn.com.

Branson, R. (2012). Screw it, Let’s do it – Lessons in Life . London: Virgin.

Covey, S. R. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people: restoring the character ethic . New York: Simon and Schuster.

Einstein, A. (2011). The Ultimate Quotable Einstein. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Gates, B. (2013). Gates Notes: The Blog of Bill Gates . gatesnotes.com.

Jobs, S. (2005). Steve Jobs’ Stanford Commencement Address . Stanford News.

Mandela, N. (2010). Conversations with Myself . London: Macmillan London Ltd.

Prior, A. (2015). Pursuing Eudaimonia: Re-appropriating the Greek Philosophical Foundations of the Christian Apophatic Tradition . Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Winfrey, O. (2014). What I Know for Sure. Chicago: Flatiron Books.

Zuckerberg, M. (2012 ). Zuckerberg’s Letter to Investors: ‘The Hacker Way’ .

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

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1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Philosophy, One Thousand Words at a Time

Welcome to 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology , an ever-growing set of over 190 original 1000-word essays on philosophical questions, theories, figures, and arguments.

All of our essays are available in audio format; many of our essays are available as videos . 

Essay Categories

We have essays in these categories:

• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Africana Philosophy
• Buddhist Philosophy
• Chinese Philosophy
• Epistemology, or Theory of Knowledge
• Historical Philosophy
• Islamic Philosophy
• Logic and Reasoning
• Metaphilosophy, or Philosophy of Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Phenomenology and Existentialism
• Philosophy of Education
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Mind and Language
• Philosophy of Race
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Sex and Gender
• Social and Political Philosophy

New categories are added as the project expands. 

New to Philosophy?

You might begin with these essays:

• What is Philosophy? by Thomas Metcalf,
• Critical Thinking: What is it to be a Critical Thinker? by Carolina Flores,
• Arguments: Why Do You Believe What You Believe? by Thomas Metcalf, and
• Is it Wrong to Believe Without Sufficient Evidence? W.K. Clifford’s “The Ethics of Belief” by Spencer Case. 

Newest Essays

Here are our newest essays :

• Moral Education: Teaching Students to Become Better People by Dominik Balg
• Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems by Jon Charry
• Objects and their Parts: The Problem of Material Composition by Jeremy Skrzypek
• Artificial Intelligence: The Possibility of Artificial Minds by Thomas Metcalf
• The Mind-Body Problem: What Are Minds? by Jacob Berger
• Seemings: Justifying Beliefs Based on How Things Seem by Kaj André Zeller
• Form and Matter: Hylomorphism by Jeremy W. Skrzypek
• Kant’s Theory of the Sublime by Matthew Sanderson
• Philosophy of Color by Tiina Carita Rosenqvist
• On Karl Marx’s Slogan “From Each According to their Ability, To Each According to their Need” by Sam Badger

We publish new essays frequently, so please check back for updates. Also follow us on Facebook , Twitter / X , and Instagram , and subscribe by email on this page to receive notifications of new essays. 

Popular Essays

Some of our most popular essays include: 

• Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” by Charles Miceli and  Descartes’ Meditations by Marc Bobro
• Marx’s Conception of Alienation  by Dan Lowe
• John Rawls’ ‘A Theory of Justice’  by Ben Davies
• The Ethics of Abortion  by Nathan Nobis
• Aristotle’s Defense of Slavery  by Dan Lowe
• “God is Dead”: Nietzsche and the Death of God  by Justin Remhof
• Philosophy and Its Contrast with Science : Comparing Philosophical and Scientific Understanding  by Thomas Metcalf
• Happiness: What is it to be Happy?  by Kiki Berk
• Pascal’s Wager: A Pragmatic Argument for Belief in God  by Liz Jackson
• The African Ethic of Ubuntu  by Thaddeus Metz

A complete list of all our essays is here . 

Student Resources

We have resources for students , including essays on How to Read Philosophy and How to Write a Philosophical Essay by the Editors of 1000-Word Philosophy . 

Instructor Resources

We have resources to help i nstructors develop courses and course modules using our essays.

Follow 1000-Word Philosophy on Facebook , Twitter / X , and Instagram and subscribe to receive email notifications of new essays at  1000WordPhilosophy.com

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How to Put a Quote in an Essay

Last Updated: September 1, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Danielle Blinka, MA, MPA . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. There are 12 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,664,891 times.

Using a direct quote in your essay is a great way to support your ideas with concrete evidence, which you need to support your thesis. To select a good quote , look for a passage that supports your argument and is open to analysis. Then, incorporate that quote into your essay, and make sure you properly cite it based on the style guide you’re using.

Sample Quotes

Incorporating a Short Quote

• For instance, let's say this is the quote you want to use: "The brown leaves symbolize the death of their relationship, while the green buds suggest new opportunities will soon unfold."
• If you just type that sentence into your essay and put quotes around it, your reader will be disoriented. Instead, you could incorporate it into a sentence like this: "The imagery in the story mirrors what's happening in Lia's love life, as 'The brown leaves symbolize the death of their relationship, while the green buds suggest new opportunities will soon unfold.'"

• "Critic Alex Li says, 'The frequent references to the color blue are used to suggest that the family is struggling to cope with the loss of their matriarch.'"
• "According to McKinney’s research, 'Adults who do yoga at least three times a week have lower blood pressure, better sleeping patterns, and fewer everyday frustrations.'"
• "Based on several recent studies, people are more likely to sit on the park benches when they're shaded by trees."

• You still need to use quotation marks even if you're only quoting a few words.
• If you're in doubt, it's best to be cautious and use quotes.

• For example, let’s say you used the quote, “According to McKinney’s research, ‘Adults who do yoga at least three times a week have lower blood pressure, better sleeping patterns, and fewer everyday frustrations.’” Your commentary might read, “This shows that yoga can have a positive impact on people’s health, so incorporating it into the workplace can help improve employee health outcomes. Since yoga makes employees healthier, they’ll likely have reduced insurance costs.”

• When you use a paraphrase, you still need to provide commentary that links the paraphrased material back to your thesis and ideas.

Using a Long Quote

• The reader will recognize that the material is a direct quote because it's set off from the rest of the text. That's why you don't need to use quotation marks. However, you will include your citation at the bottom.

• "In The Things They Carried , the items carried by soldiers in the Vietnam war are used to both characterize them and burden the readers with the weight they are carrying: The things they carried were largely determined by necessity. Among the necessities or near-necessities were P-38 can openers, pocket knives, heat tabs, wristwatches, dog tags, mosquito repellent, chewing gum, candy cigarettes, salt tablets, packets of Kool-Aid, lighters, matches, sewing kits, Military Payment Certificates, C rations, and two or three canteens of water." (O'Brien 2)

Variation: When you're citing two or more paragraphs, you must use block quotes, even if the passage you want to quote is less than four lines long. You should indent the first line of each paragraph an extra quarter inch. Then, use ellipses (…) at the end of one paragraph to transition to the next.

• Your block quote will use the same spacing as the rest of your paper, which will likely be double-spacing.

• For example, “According to Li, “Rosa is the first sister to pick a rose because she’s the only one who’s begun to move on after their mother’s death” might become “According to Li, “Rosa is the first sister to pick a rose because she’s … begun to move on after their mother’s death.”
• Don’t eliminate words to change the meaning of the original text. For instance, it’s not appropriate to use an ellipsis to change “plants did not grow faster when exposed to poetry” to “plants did … grow faster when exposed to poetry.”

• For example, let’s say you want to use the quote, “All of them experienced a more relaxed, calmer disposition after doing yoga for 6 months.” This doesn’t tell the reader who you’re talking about. You could use brackets to say, “All of [the teachers in the study] experienced a more relaxed, calmer disposition after doing yoga for 6 months.”
• However, if you know the study is talking about teachers, you couldn’t use brackets to say, “All of [society experiences] a more relaxed, calmer disposition after doing yoga for 6 months.”

• If you don't explain your quote well, then it's not helping your ideas. You can't expect the reader to connect the quote back to your thesis for you.

• For instance, you may prefer to use a long block quote to present a passage from a literary work that demonstrates the author's style. However, let's say you were using a journal article to provide a critic's perspective on an author's work. You may not need to directly quote an entire paragraph word-for-word to get their point across. Instead, use a paraphrase.

Tip: If you’re unsure about a quote, ask yourself, “Can I paraphrase this in more concise language and not lose any support for my argument?” If the answer is yes, a quote is not necessary.

Citing Your Quote

• An MLA citation will look like this: (Lopez 24)
• For sources with multiple authors, separate their names with the word “and:” (Anderson and Smith 55-56) or (Taylor, Gomez, and Austin 89)
• If you use the author’s name in your lead-in to the quote, you just need to provide the year in parentheses: According to Luz Lopez, “the green grass symbolizes a fresh start for Lia (24).”

• An APA citation for a direct quote looks like this: (Ronan, 2019, p. 10)
• If you’re citing multiple authors, separate their names with the word “and:” (Cruz, Hanks, and Simmons, 2019, p. 85)
• If you incorporated the author’s name into your lead-in, you can just give the year and page number: Based on Ronan’s (2019, p. 10) analysis, “coffee breaks improve productivity.”

• For instance, a Chicago Style citation will look like this: (Alexander 2019, 125)
• If you’re quoting a source with multiple authors, separate them with the word “and:” (Pattinson, Stewart, and Green 2019, 175)
• If you already incorporated the author’s name into your quote, then you can just provide the year and page number: According to Alexander, “the smell of roses increases feelings of happiness” (2019, 125).

• For MLA, you'd cite an article like this: Lopez, Luz. "A Fresh Blossom: Imagery in 'Her Darkest Sunshine.'" Journal of Stories , vol. 2, no. 5, 2019, p. 15-22. [17] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• In APA, you'd cite an article like this: Lopez, Luz. (2019). A Fresh Blossom: Imagery in "Her Darkest Sunshine." Journal of Stories , 2(5), 15-22. [18] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• For Chicago Style, your article citation would look like this: Lopez, Luz. "A Fresh Blossom: Imagery in 'Her Darkest Sunshine.'" Journal of Stories 2 no. 4 (2019): 15-22. [19] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source

Selecting a Quote

Tip: Quotes are most effective when the original language of the person or text you’re quoting is worth repeating word-for-word.

• If you’re struggling to explain the quote or link it back to your argument, then it’s likely not a good idea to include it in your essay.

• Paraphrases and summaries work just like a direct quote, except that you don’t need to put quotation marks around them because you’re using your own words to restate ideas. However, you still need to cite the sources you used.

Community Q&A

• Always cite your quotes properly. If you don't, it is considered plagiarism. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://www.ursinus.edu/live/files/1160-integrating-quotespdf
• ↑ https://lsa.umich.edu/sweetland/undergraduates/writing-guides/how-do-i-incorporate-quotes-.html
• ↑ https://libguides.lahc.edu/mla/intext
• ↑ https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/using-sources/quotations/
• ↑ https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/paraphrasing-summarising-and-quoting
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_quotations.html
• ↑ https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/apaquickguide/intext
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_and_style_guide.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodicals.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/periodicals.html
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/quotations/

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The content of this article is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, examination, diagnosis, or treatment. You should always contact your doctor or other qualified healthcare professional before starting, changing, or stopping any kind of health treatment.

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To put a quote in an essay, incorporate it directly into a sentence if it's shorter than 4 typed lines. For example, you could write "According to researchers," and then insert the quote. If a quote is longer than 4 typed lines, set it off from the rest of the paragraph, and don't put quotes around it. After the quote, include an in-text citation so readers know where it's from. The right way to cite the quote will depend on whether you're using MLA, APA, or Chicago Style formatting. For more tips from our English co-author, like how to omit words from a quote, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• Citation Styles

What citation style to use for philosophy

Describing the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and conscious existence,  philosophy is a popular academic discipline with those that like to ask: ”Why?”

The problem is there is another question affecting philosophy students, and that is “What?”. As in, what citation style should be used for philosophical essays? Philosophy is a university subject that comes with a lot of reading, and it's essential to handle citations correctly to maintain your academic integrity.

We’ve put together these quick guidelines to understanding what citation style to use for philosophy and why.

#1 Chicago citation style

Chicago-style references come in two variations, "author-date" and "notes and bibliography". We are focussing on "author-date" in this part since it is very common for philosophy.

In the "author-date" system, your citation will use the surname of the author, the year of publication, the page number, or section number at the very least even in a simple citation.

In practice, an in-text citation in Chicago style looks something like this:

(Graness 2016)

The reference list at the end of the assignment will have more information regarding what type of source was used and how to access it. When using the Chicago citation method, a complete citation will have the following structure:

Graness, Anke. 2016. “Writing the History of Philosophy in Africa: Where to Begin?” Journal of African Cultural Studies 28 (2): 132–46.

When citing E-resources like websites, a Chicago-style reference may look a little more like this:

Lau, Ting Fang Tiffany. 2020. “The Concept of Anomie in Explaining Crime.” Bellarmine Law Society Review 11 (1). https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/blsr/article/view/12829.

When using an electronic source like a website it’s important to note a few things. First of all, a website article or e-journal might not always have page numbers. This can make it more difficult to cite; the solution is to make use of paragraph numbers instead.

The other thing is not to forget to include a full link to where the source was found online, either via adding a DOI or a URL when putting it in your list of references.

Check out these Chicago style resources

🌐 Official Chicago style guidelines

🗂 Chicago style guide

📝 Chicago citation generator

#2 MLA citation style

The next citation method that is commonly used in philosophy assignments is the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation style. With this approach, students make use of a few key pieces of information including:

• The author’s name
• The title of the source
• Other contributing authors
• The version number
• The publisher
• Publication date
• Location of publication

When creating in-text citations, the format with the MLA style guide is relatively simple. Take a look at this example:

Philosophy is still a growing field in the modern world, despite being born of the early classical age (Ethbert 18) .

Compared to the Chicago style, the in-text citation contains a simpler format of the author-date system.

An important difference between this method of citation and others is how the reference list is handled. Under the MLA guidelines, the reference list is titled “Works Cited’ and will need to have the following information included when referencing a specific work:

Jackson, Liz et al. “Philosophy of Education in a New Key: Snapshot 2020 from the United States and Canada.” Educational philosophy and theory (2020): 1–17. Print.

As usual, the author's surname is given the highest emphasis. If no author name or surname can be found, the title of the work should be added as the primary information followed by the publication date. This rule applies to most citation strategies.

When quoting an electronic source like phrases from a website, check that the URL or Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is included along with the publishing date. The MLA associations specify that when citing online sources like an e-journal, you need to add the date of access including the day, month, and year as essential details.

Check out these MLA style resources

🌐 Official MLA style guidelines

🗂 MLA style guide

📝 MLA citation generator

#3 APA citation style

Then, there is the APA method of citation. One of the most consistently used referencing styles within the social sciences and humanities, the majority of students have had contact with APA at some point in their academic careers.

The preferred APA format for in-text citations includes information such as the author’s name and the date of publication separated by a comma within parentheses. If a specific part of the source is being referenced, a page number can also be added. This would look like the following example:

Modern education is a constantly evolving field (Komatsu & Rappleye, 2020) .

With papers that have more than two authors, in-text citations are shortened further by referring to only one author by name and adding the rest under the umbrella of “et al”:

In Japan, education has been one of the most evolving fields (Peters et al., 2019) .

Then, there is the question of how the reference list is handled in APA. The full APA citation works similarly to other methods listed above in that it requires the publisher and edition to be listed along with the title and year of publication. This will look like the example below:

Komatsu, H., & Rappleye, J. (2020). Reimagining modern education: Contributions from modern Japanese philosophy and practice? ECNU Review of Education , 3(1), 20–45.

All citations in the APA style are organized alphabetically.

When it comes to electronic APA citations such as for e-journals or websites, the source URL or DOI needs to be added to the citation.

In some cases, it will be important to specify even further, including page ranges or paragraph numbers where available.

Check out these APA style resources

🌐 Official APA style guidelines

🗂 APA style guide

📝 APA citation generator

#4 ASA citation style

The ASA citation style is derived from the Chicago style of citation and while primarily used in sociology this method can also be applied to philosophical studies.

Using the author-date ASA method of citation will mean that you'll need to add the author's last names, the date of publication and the page numbers used when directly quoting.

In practice, this will look like the example below:

There is a need to review research evaluation methods and make them more transparent (Dougherty, Slevc, and Grand 2019) .

More than three authors would require that you use only the surname of the first author, followed by 'et al.' to describe the other contributors.

A full-text citation in ASA will need to look like the below example:

Dougherty, Michael R., L. Robert Slevc, and James A. Grand. 2019. “Making Research Evaluation More Transparent: Aligning Research Philosophy, Institutional Values, and Reporting.” Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science 14(3):361–75.

Check out these ASA style resources

🌐 Official ASA style guide

📝 ASA citation generator

#5 Harvard citation style

Lastly, there is the Harvard citation style, also suitable for use in philosophical papers and assignments. Using the Harvard method, the author and the year of publication are cited in parentheses, while the full citation is added later under the 'References' section.

Starting with the in-text citation, you can expect the surnames of the author(s), the publishing date and even the page ranges you used to be included.

A new approach to education is needed in the modern age (Jackson et al., 2020, p. 5).

In the in-text citation above, you can see the 'et al.' descriptor being used to cut down on the bulk of the citation. The full list of authors will appear in the 'References' section.

On that note, a full text citation will hold all the relevant information about the resource you used, including where to find them.

Here is an example of a full citation in Harvard style:

Peters, U., Honeycutt, N., De Block, A., & Jussim, L. (2020). Ideological diversity, hostility, and discrimination in philosophy. Philosophical Psychology , 33(4), 511–548.

Check out these Harvard referencing resources

🌐 Official Harvard style guidelines (Cite Them Right)

🗂 Harvard style guide

📝 Harvard citation generator

Frequently Asked Questions about Citation styles for philosophy

There is no set format for philosophy, although philosophy departments will recommend choosing a style like APA and adhering to it.

Always speak to your lecturer or check your rubric to see if there is a recommended style. If not, take a look at what the most popular citation style is in that field, and choose the one that you feel will be easiest to implement.

Try to start with a topic statement, elaborate on your main points, and then start to add supporting statements and references. Your opening sentence should be enticing to the reader, and the lines that follow it should clearly state what you intend to write and how you will support it.

There is no set style of citation used in philosophy, although APA and MLA are commonly used, as is the Chicago style. Chicago in particular provides the ability to add footnotes.

Both styles are commonly used in philosophy; since there is no required citation style for this subject you can use the citation method of your choice. Just be sure to bear in mind that whichever style you choose, you'll need to ensure you use the same format consistently throughout.

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• Cultural Studies General
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Taylor Swift and Philosophy: Essays from the Tortured Philosophers Department

ISBN: 978-1-394-23859-0

September 2024

Wiley-Blackwell

Digital Evaluation Copy

Catherine M. Robb , Georgie Mills , William Irwin

Explore the philosophical wisdom of Taylor Swift and her music

Taylor Swift is a “Mastermind” when it comes to relationships, songwriting, and performing sold-out stadium tours. But did you know that Taylor is also a philosophical mastermind?

Taylor Swift and Philosophy is the first book to explore the philosophical topics that arise from Taylor Swift's life and music. Edited and authored by Swifties who also happen to be philosophers and scholars, this fun and engaging book is written with general readers in mind—you don't have to be a devoted fan or a specialist in philosophy to explore the themes, concepts, and questions expressed in Taylor's songs.

• Is Taylor Swift a philosopher?
• What can her songs tell us about ethics and society?
• What is the nature of friendship?
• Should you forgive someone for breaking your heart?

Presenting top-tier research and new perspectives on important contemporary issues, twenty-seven chapters discuss the philosophical contexts of Taylor's work, such as the ethics of reputational damage, the impacts of first impressions, the moral obligation to speak out against injustice, and much more.

Taylor Swift and Philosophy is a must-read for Swifties who want to deepen their appreciation and understanding of Taylor's work, as well as for philosophy students and scholars with an interest in popular culture and media studies.

CATHERINE M. ROBB is an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Tilburg University, Netherlands. Her research interests include ethics, metaphysics, aesthetics, and applied philosophy, with a focus on the nature and value of ability, skill and talent, and related ethical implications.

GEORGIE MILLS is a Research Fellow at Delft University of Technology, Netherlands. She is primarily a philosopher of science, emotion, and medicine with a range of interests in the philosophy of pop culture. She has published work on Punk, Post-Punk, Britney Spears, and Ted Lasso .