case study about csr

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The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility

Matteo Tonello is Director of Corporate Governance for The Conference Board, Inc. This post is based on a Conference Board Director Note by Archie B. Carroll and Kareem M. Shabana , and relates to a paper by these authors, titled “The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice,” published in the International Journal of Management Reviews .

In the last decade, in particular, empirical research has brought evidence of the measurable payoff of corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives to companies as well as their stakeholders. Companies have a variety of reasons for being attentive to CSR. This report documents some of the potential bottomline benefits: reducing cost and risk, gaining competitive advantage, developing and maintaining legitimacy and reputational capital, and achieving win-win outcomes through synergistic value creation.

The term “corporate social responsibility” is still widely used even though related concepts, such as sustainability, corporate citizenship, business ethics, stakeholder management, corporate responsibility, and corporate social performance, are vying to replace it. In different ways, these expressions refer to the ensemble of policies, practices, investments, and concrete results deployed and achieved by a business corporation in the pursuit of its stakeholders’ interests.

This report discusses the business case for CSR—that is, what justifies the allocation of resources by the business community to advance a certain socially responsible cause. The business case is concerned with the following question: what tangible benefits do business organizations reap from engaging in CSR initiatives? This report reviews the most notable research on the topic and provides practical examples of CSR initiatives that are also good for the business and its bottom line.

The Search for a Business Case: A Shift in Perspective

Business management scholars have been searching for a business case for CSR since the origins of the concept in the 1960s. [1]

An impetus for the research questions for this report was philosophical. It had to do with the long-standing divide between those who, like the late economist Milton Friedman, believed that the corporation should pursue only its shareholders’ economic interests and those who conceive the business organization as a nexus of relations involving a variety of stakeholders (employees, suppliers, customers, and the community where the company operates) without which durable shareholder value creation is impossible. If it could be demonstrated that businesses actually benefited financially from a CSR program designed to cultivate such a range of stakeholder relations, the thinking of the latter school went, then Friedman’s arguments would somewhat be neutralized.

Another impetus to research on the business case of CSR was more pragmatic. Even though CSR came about because of concerns about businesses’ detrimental impacts on society, the theme of making money by improving society has also always been in the minds of early thinkers and practitioners: with the passage of time and the increase in resources being dedicated to CSR pursuits, it was only natural that questions would begin to be raised about whether CSR was making economic sense.

Obviously, corporate boards, CEOs, CFOs, and upper echelon business executives care. They are the guardians of companies’ financial well-being and, ultimately, must bear responsibility for the impact of CSR on the bottom line. At multiple levels, executives need to justify that CSR is consistent with the firm’s strategies and that it is financially sustainable. [a]

However, other groups care as well. Shareholders are acutely concerned with financial performance and sensitive to possible threats to management’s priorities. Social activists care because it is in their long-term best interests if companies can sustain the types of social initiatives that they are advocating. Governmental bodies care because they desire to see whether companies can deliver social and environmental benefits more cost effectively than they can through regulatory approaches. [b] Consumers care as well, as they want to pass on a better world to their children, and many want their purchasing to reflect their values.

[a] K. O’Sullivan, “Virtue rewarded: companies are suddenly discovering the profit potential of social responsibility.” CFO , October 2006, pp. 47–52.

[b] Simon Zadek. Doing Good and Doing Well: Making the Business Case for Corporate Citizenship . New York: The Conference Board Research Report, 2000, 1282-00-RR.

The socially responsible investment movement Establishing a positive relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) has been a long-standing pursuit of researchers. This endeavor has been described as a “30-year quest for an empirical relationship between a corporation’s social initiatives and its financial performance.” [2] One comprehensive review and assessment of studies exploring the CSP-CFP relationship concludes that there is a positive relationship between CSP and CFP. [3]

In response to this empirical evidence, in the last decade the investment community, in particular, has witnessed the growth of a cadre of socially responsible investment funds (SRI), whose dedicated investment strategy is focused on businesses with a solid track record of CSR-oriented initiatives. Today, the debate on the business case for CSR is clearly influenced by these new market trends: to raise capital, these players promote the belief of a strong correlation between social and financial performance. [4]

As the SRI movement becomes more influential, CSR theories are shifting away from an orientation on ethics (or altruistic rationale) and embracing a performance-driven orientation. In addition, analysis of the value generated by CSR has moved from the macro to the organizational level, where the effects of CSR on firm financial performance are directly experienced. [5]

The CSR of the 1960s and 1970s was motivated by social considerations, not economic ones. “While there was substantial peer pressure among corporations to become more philanthropic, no one claimed that such firms were likely to be more profitable than their less generous competitors.” In contrast, the essence of the new world of CSR is “doing good to do well.” [6]

CSR is evolving into a core business function, central to the firm’s overall strategy and vital to its success. [7] Specifically, CSR addresses the question: “can companies perform better financially by addressing both their core business operations as well as their responsibilities to the broader society?” [8]

One Business Case Just Won’t Do

There is no single CSR business case—no single rationalization for how CSR improves the bottom line. Over the years, researchers have developed many arguments. In general, these arguments can be grouped based on approach, topics addressed, and underlying assumptions about how value is created and defined. According to this categorization, CSR is a viable business choice as it is a tool to:

• implement cost and risk reductions;
• gain competitive advantage;
• develop corporate reputation and legitimacy; and
• seek win-win outcomes through synergistic value creation. [9]

Other widely accepted approaches substantiating the business case include focusing on the empirical research linking CSR with corporate social performance (CSP) and identifying values brought to different stakeholder groups that directly or indirectly benefit the company’s bottom lines.

Broad versus narrow views Some researchers have examined the integration of CSR considerations in the day-to-day business agenda of organizations. The “mainstreaming” of CSR follows from one of three rationales:

• the social values-led model, in which organizations adopt CSR initiatives regarding specific issues for non-economic reasons;
• the business-case model, in which CSR initiatives are primarily assessed in an economic manner and pursued only when there is a clear link to firm financial performance [10] ; and
• the syncretic stewardship model, which combines the social values-led and the business-case models.

The business case model and the syncretic models may be seen as two perspectives of the business case for CSR: one narrow and one broad. The business case model represents the narrow view: CSR is only recognized when there is a clear link to firm financial performance. The syncretic model is broad because it recognizes both direct and indirect relationships between CSR and firm financial performance. The advantage of the broad view is that it enables the firm to identify and exploit opportunities beyond the financial, opportunities that the narrow view would not be able to recognize or justify.

Another advantage of the broad view of the business case, which is illustrated by the syncretic model, is its recognition of the interdependence between business and society. [11]

The failure to recognize such interdependence in favor of pitting business against society leads to reducing the productivity of CSR initiatives. “The prevailing approaches to CSR are so fragmented and so disconnected from business and strategy as to obscure many of the greatest opportunities for companies to benefit society.” [12] The adoption of CSR practices, their integration with firm strategy, and their mainstreaming in the day-to-day business agenda should not be done in a generic manner. Rather, they should be pursued “in the way most appropriate to each firm’s strategy.” [13]

In support of the business case for CSR, the next sections of the report discuss examples of the effect of CSR on firm performance. The discussion is organized according to the framework referenced earlier, which identifies four categories of benefits that firms may attain from engaging in CSR activities. [14]

Reducing Costs and Risks

Cost and risk reduction justifications contend that engaging in certain CSR activities will reduce the firm’s inefficient capital expenditures and exposure to risks. “[T]he primary view is that the demands of stakeholders present potential threats to the viability of the organization, and that corporate economic interests are served by mitigating the threats through a threshold level of social or environmental performance.” [15]

Equal employment opportunity policies and practices CSR activities in the form of equal employment opportunity (EEO) policies and practices enhance long-term shareholder value by reducing costs and risks. The argument is that explicit EEO statements are necessary to illustrate an inclusive policy that reduces employee turnover through improving morale. [16] This argument is consistent with those who observe that “[l]ack of diversity may cause higher turnover and absenteeism from disgruntled employees.” [17]

Energy-saving and other environmentally sound production practices Cost and risk reduction may also be achieved through CSR activities directed at the natural environment. Empirical research shows that being environmentally proactive results in cost and risk reduction. Specifically, data shows hat “being proactive on environmental issues can lower the costs of complying with present and future environmental regulations … [and] … enhance firm efficiencies and drive down operating costs.” [18]

Community relations management Finally, CSR activities directed at managing community relations may also result in cost and risk reductions. [19] For example, building positive community relationships may contribute to the firm’s attaining tax advantages offered by city and county governments to further local investments. In addition, positive community relationships decrease the number of regulations imposed on the firm because the firm is perceived as a sanctioned member of society.

Cost and risk reduction arguments for CSR have been gaining wide acceptance among managers and executives. In a survey of business executives by PricewaterhouseCoopers, 73 percent of the respondents indicated that “cost savings” was one of the top three reasons companies are becoming more socially responsible. [20]

Gaining Competitive Advantage

As used in this section of the report, the term “competitive advantage” is best understood in the context of a differentiation strategy; in other words, the focus is on how firms may use CSR practices to set themselves apart from their competitors. The previous section, which focused on cost and risk reduction, illustrated how CSR practices may be thought of in terms of building a competitive advantage through a cost management strategy. “Competitive advantages” was cited as one of the top two justifications for CSR in a survey of business executives reported in a Fortune survey. [21] In this context, stakeholder demands are seen as opportunities rather than constraints. Firms strategically manage their resources to meet these demands and exploit the opportunities associated with them for the benefit of the firm. [22] This approach to CSR requires firms to integrate their social responsibility initiatives with their broader business strategies.

Reducing costs and risks • Equal employment opportunity policies and practices • Energy-saving and other environmentally sound production practices • Community relations management

Gaining competitive advantage • EEO policies • Customer relations program • Corporate philanthropy

Developing reputation and legitimacy • Corporate philanthropy • Corporate disclosure and transparency practices

Seeking win-win outcomes through synergistic value creation • Charitable giving to education • Stakeholder engagement

EEO policies Companies that build their competitive advantage through unique CSR strategies may have a superior advantage, as the uniqueness of their CSR strategies may serve as a basis for setting the firm apart from its competitors. [23] For example, an explicit statement of EEO policies would have additional benefits to the cost and risk reduction discussed earlier in this report. Such policies would provide the firm with a competitive advantage because “[c]ompanies without inclusive policies may be at a competitive disadvantage in recruiting and retaining employees from the widest talent pool.” [24]

Customer and investor relations programs CSR initiatives can contribute to strengthening a firm’s competitive advantage, its brand loyalty, and its consumer patronage. CSR initiatives also have a positive impact on attracting investment. Many institutional investors “avoid companies or industries that violate their organizational mission, values, or principles… [They also] seek companies with good records on employee relations, environmental stewardship, community involvement, and corporate governance.” [25]

Corporate philanthropy Companies may align their philanthropic activities with their capabilities and core competencies. “In so doing, they avoid distractions from the core business, enhance the efficiency of their charitable activities and assure unique value creation for the beneficiaries.” [26] For example, McKinsey & Co. offers free consulting services to nonprofit organizations in social, cultural, and educational fields. Beneficiaries include public art galleries, colleges, and charitable institutions. [27] Home Depot Inc. provided rebuilding knowhow to the communities victimized by Hurricane Katrina. Strategic philanthropy helps companies gain a competitive advantage and in turn boosts its bottom line. [28]

CSR initiatives enhance a firm’s competitive advantage to the extent that they influence the decisions of the firm’s stakeholders in its favor. Stakeholders may prefer a firm over its competitors specifically due to the firm’s engagement in such CSR initiatives.

Developing Reputation and Legitimacy

Companies may also justify their CSR initiatives on the basis of creating, defending, and sustaining their legitimacy and strong reputations. A business is perceived as legitimate when its activities are congruent with the goals and values of the society in which the business operates. In other words, a business is perceived as legitimate when it fulfills its social responsibilities. [29]

As firms demonstrate their ability to fit in with the communities and cultures in which they operate, they are able to build mutually beneficial relationships with stakeholders. Firms “focus on value creation by leveraging gains in reputation and legitimacy made through aligning stakeholder interests.” [30] Strong reputation and legitimacy sanction the firm to operate in society. CSR activities enhance the ability of a firm to be seen as legitimate in the eyes of consumers, investors, and employees. Time and again, consumers, employees, and investors have shown a distinct preference for companies that take their social responsibilities seriously. A Center for Corporate Citizenship study found that 66 percent of executives thought their social responsibility strategies resulted in improving corporate reputation and saw this as a business benefit. [31]

Corporate philanthropy Corporate philanthropy may be a tool of legitimization. Firms that have negative social performance in the areas of environmental issues and product safety use charitable contributions as a means for building their legitimacy. [32]

Corporate disclosure and transparency practices Corporations have also enhanced their legitimacy and reputation through the disclosure of information regarding their performance on different social and environmental issues, sometimes referred to as sustainability reporting. Corporate social reporting refers to stand-alone reports that provide information regarding a company’s economic, environmental, and social performance. The practice of corporate social reporting has been encouraged by the launch of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) in 1997-1998 and the introduction of the United Nations Global Compact in 1999. Through social reporting, firms can document that their operations are consistent with social norms and expectations, and, therefore, are perceived as legitimate.

Seeking Win-Win Outcomes through Synergistic Value Creation

Synergistic value creation arguments focus on exploiting opportunities that reconcile differing stakeholder demands. Firms do this by “connecting stakeholder interests, and creating pluralistic definitions of value for multiple stakeholders simultaneously.” [33] In other words, with a cause big enough, they can unite many potential interest groups.

Charitable giving to education When companies get the “where” and the “how” right, philanthropic activities and competitive advantage become mutually reinforcing and create a virtuous circle. Corporate philanthropy may be used to influence the competitive context of an organization, which allows the organization to improve its competitiveness and at the same time fulfill the needs of some of its stakeholders. For example, in the long run, charitable giving to education improves the quality of human resources available to the firm. Similarly, charitable contributions to community causes eventually result in the creation and preservation of a higher quality of life, which may sustain “sophisticated and demanding local customers.” [34]

The notion of creating win-win outcomes through CSR activities has been raised before. Management expert Peter Drucker argues that “the proper ‘social responsibility’ of business is to … turn a social problem into economic opportunity and economic benefit, into productive capacity, into human competence, into well-paid jobs, and into wealth.” [35] It has been argued that, “it will not be too long before we can begin to assert that the business of business is the creation of sustainable value— economic, social and ecological.” [36]

An example: the win-win perspective adopted by the life sciences firm Novo Group allowed it to pursue its business “[which] is deeply involved in genetic modification and yet maintains highly interactive and constructive relationships with stakeholders and publishes a highly rated environmental and social report each year.” [37]

Stakeholder engagement The win-win perspective on CSR practices aims to satisfy stakeholders’ demands while allowing the firm to pursue financial success. By engaging its stakeholders and satisfying their demands, the firm finds opportunities for profit with the consent and support of its stakeholder environment.

The business case for corporate social responsibility can be made. While it is valuable for a company to engage in CSR for altruistic and ethical justifications, the highly competitive business world in which we live requires that, in allocating resources to socially responsible initiatives, firms continue to consider their own business needs.

In the last decade, in particular, empirical research has brought evidence of the measurable payoff of CSR initiatives on firms as well as their stakeholders. Firms have a variety of reasons for being CSR-attentive. But beyond the many bottom-line benefits outlined here, businesses that adopt CSR practices also benefit our society at large.

[1] See Edward Freeman, Strategic Management: a Stakeholder Approach , 1984, which traces the roots of CSR to the 1960s and 1970s, when many multinationals were formed. (go back)

[2] J. D. Margolis and Walsh, J.P. “Misery loves companies: social initiatives by business.” Administrative Science Quarterly , 48, 2003, pp. 268–305. (go back)

[3] J. F. Mahon and Griffin, J .J. “Painting a portrait: a reply.” Business and Society , 38, 1999, 126–133. (go back)

[4] See, for an overview, Stephen Gates, Jon Lukomnik, and David Pitt- Watson, The New Capitalists: How Citizen Investors Are Reshaping The Business Agenda , Harvard Business School Press, 2006. (go back)

[5] M.P. Lee, “A review of the theories of corporate social responsibility: its evolutionary path and the road ahead”. International Journal of Management Reviews , 10, 2008, 53–73. (go back)

[6] D.J. Vogel, “Is there a market for virtue? The business case for corporate social responsibility.” California Management Review , 47, 2005, pp. 19–45. (go back)

[7] Ibid. (go back)

[8] Elizabeth Kurucz; Colbert, Barry; and Wheeler, David “The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility.” Chapter 4 in Crane, A.; McWilliams, A.; Matten, D.; Moon, J. and Siegel, D. The Oxford Handbook of Corporate Social Responsibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, 83-112 (go back)

[9] Kurucz, Colbert, and Wheeler , 85-92. (go back)

[10] Berger,I.E., Cunningham, P. and Drumwright, M.E. “Mainstreaming corporate and social responsibility: developing markets for virtue,” California Management Review , 49, 2007, 132-157. (go back)

[11] Ibid. (go back)

[12] M.E. Porter and Kramer, M.R. “Strategy & society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility.” Harvard Business Review , 84, 2006,pp. 78–92. (go back)

[13] Ibid. (go back)

[14] Kurucz, Colbert, and Wheeler, 85-92. (go back)

[15] Ibid., 88. (go back)

[16] T. Smith, “Institutional and social investors find common ground. Journal of Investing , 14, 2005, 57–65. (go back)

[17] S. L. Berman, Wicks, A.C., Kotha, S. and Jones, T.M. “Does stakeholder orientation matter? The relationship between stakeholder management models and firm financial performance.” Academy of Management Journal , 42, 1999, 490. (go back)

[18] Ibid. (go back)

[19] Ibid. (go back)

[20] Top 10 Reasons, PricewaterhouseCoopers 2002 Sustainability Survey Report, reported in “Corporate America’s Social Conscience,” Fortune , May 26, 2003, 58. (go back)

[21] Top 10 Reasons . (go back)

[22] Kurucz, Colbert, and Wheeler (go back)

[23] N. Smith, 2003, 67. (go back)

[24] T. Smith, 2005, 60. (go back)

[25] Ibid., 64. (go back)

[26] Heike Bruch and Walter, Frank (2005). “The Keys to Rethinking Corporate Philanthropy.” MIT Sloan Management Review , 47(1): 48-56 (go back)

[27] Ibid., 50. (go back)

[28] Bruce Seifert, Morris, Sara A.; and Bartkus, Barbara R. (2003). “Comparing Big Givers and Small Givers: Financial Correlates of Corporate Philanthropy.” Journal of Business Ethics , 45(3): 195-211. (go back)

[29] Archie B. Carroll and Ann K. Buchholtz, Business and Society: Ethics, Sustainability and Stakeholder Management , 8th Edition, Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning, 2012, 305. (go back)

[30] Kurucz, Colbert, and Wheeler, 90. (go back)

[31] “Managing Corporate Citizenship as a Business Strategy,” Boston: Center for Corporate Citizenship, 2010. (go back)

[32] Jennifer C. Chen, Dennis M.; & Roberts, Robin. “Corporate Charitable Contributions: A Corporate Social Performance or Legitimacy Strategy?” Journal of Business Ethics , 2008, 131-144. (go back)

[33] Kurucz, Colbert, and Wheeler , 91. (go back)

[34] Porter and Kramer, 60-65. (go back)

[35] Peter F. Drucker, “The New Meaning of Corporate Social Responsibility.” California Management Review , 1984, 26: 53-63 (go back)

[36] C. Wheeler, B. Colbert, and R. E. Freeman. “Focusing on Value: Reconciling Corporate Social Responsibility, Sustainability and a Stakeholder Approach in a Network World.” Journal of General Management , (28)3, 2003, 1-28. (go back)

[37] Ibid. (go back)

Nice blog. CSR has become something very important to all the corporate houses today. However, with the rising growth of CSR activities. It is very important to have an effective software that helps to keep a track of the entire exercise.

Interesting article! Perhaps nice to give Mr. Stephen ‘Gates’ his real name back? After all “The New Capitalists: How Citizen Investors Are Reshaping The Business Agenda” was written by Stephen DAVIS. I think he would like the recognition ;)

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Home » Management Case Studies » Case Study: Corporate Social Responsibility of Starbucks

Case Study: Corporate Social Responsibility of Starbucks

Starbucks is the world’s largest and most popular coffee company. Since the beginning, this premier cafe aimed to deliver the world’s finest fresh-roasted coffee. Today the company dominates the industry and has created a brand that is tantamount with loyalty, integrity and proven longevity. Starbucks is not just a name, but a culture .

The corporate social responsibility of the Starbucks Corporation address the following issues: Starbucks commitment to the environment, Starbucks commitment to the employees, Starbucks commitment to consumers, discussions of ethical and unethical business behavior, and Starbucks commitment and response to shareholders.

Commitment to the Environment

The first way Starbucks has shown corporate social responsibility is through their commitment to the environment. In order to improve the environment, with a little push from the NGO, Starbucks first main goal was to provide more Fair Trade Coffee. What this means is that Starbucks will aim to only buy 100 percent responsibly grown and traded coffee. Not only does responsibly grown coffee help the environment, it benefits the farmers as well. Responsibly grown coffee means preserving energy and water at the farms. In turn, this costs more for the company overall, but the environmental improvements are worth it. Starbucks and the environment benefits from this decision because it helps continue to portray a clean image.

Commitment to Consumers

The second way Starbucks has shown corporate social responsibility is through their commitment to consumers. The best way to get the customers what they want is to understand their demographic groups. By doing research on Starbucks consumer demographics, they realized that people with disabilities are very important. The company is trying to turn stores into a more adequate environment for customers with disabilities. A few changes include: lowering counter height to improve easy of ordering for people in wheelchairs, adding at least one handicap accessible entrance, adding disability etiquette to employee handbooks, training employees to educate them on disabilities, and by joining the National Business Disability Council. By joining the National Business Disability Council, Starbucks gains access to resumes of people with disabilities.

Another way Starbucks has shown commitment to the consumers is by cutting costs and retaining loyal customers. For frequent, loyal customers, Starbucks decided to provide a loyalty card. Once a customer has obtained this card, they are given incentives and promotions for continuing to frequent their stores. Promotions include discounted drinks and free flavor shots to repeat visitors. Also, with the economy being at an all time low, Starbucks realized that cheaper prices were a necessity. By simplifying their business practices, they were able to provide lower prices for their customers. For example, they use only one recipe for banana bread, rather than eleven!

Also one big way to cut costs was outsourcing payroll and Human Resources administration . By creating a global platform for their administration system, Starbucks is able to provide more employees with benefits. Plus, they are able to spend more money on pleasing customers, rather than on a benefits system.

Commitment and Response to Shareholders

One way Starbucks has demonstrated their commitment and response to shareholder needs is by giving them large portions. By large portions, Starbucks is implying that they plan pay dividends equal to 35% or higher of net income to. For the shareholders, paying high dividends means certainty about the company’s financial well-being. Along with that, they plan to purchase 15 million more shares of stock, and hopefully this will attract investors who focus on stocks with good results.

In order to compete with McDonalds and keeping payout to their shareholders high, Starbucks needed a serious turnaround . They did decide to halt growth in North America but not in Japan. Shultz found that drinking coffee is becoming extremely popular for the Japanese. To show shareholders there is a silver lining, he announced they plan to open “thousands of stores” in Japan and Vietnamese markets.

Commitment to Employees

The first and biggest way Starbucks shows their commitment to employees is by just taking care of their workers. For example, they know how important health care, stock options, and compensation are to people in this economy. The Starbucks policy states that as long as you work 20 hours a week you get benefits and stock options. These benefits include health insurance and contributions to employee’s 401k plan. Starbucks doesn’t exclude part time workers, because they feel they are just as valuable as full time workers. Since Starbucks doesn’t have typical business hours like an office job, the part time workers help working the odd shifts.

Ethical/Unethical Business Behavior

The last way Starbucks demonstrates corporate social responsibility is through ethical behavior and the occasional unethical behavior. The first ethically positive thing Starbucks involves them self in is the NGO and Fair Trade coffee. Even though purchasing mostly Fair Trade coffee seriously affected their profits, Starbucks knew it was the right thing to do. They also knew that if they did it the right way, everyone would benefit, from farmers, to the environment, to their public image.

In the fall of 2010, Starbucks chose to team up with Jumpstart, a program that gives children a head start on their education. By donating to literacy organizations and volunteering with Jumpstart, Starbucks has made an impact on the children in America, in a very positive way.

As for Starbucks ethical behavior is a different story when forced into the media light. In 2008, a big media uproar arose due to them wanting to re-release their old logo for their 35th anniversary. The old coffee cup logo was basically a topless mermaid, which in Starbucks’ opinion is just a mythological creature, not a sex symbol. Media critics fought that someone needed to protect the creature’s modesty. Starbucks found this outrageous. In order to end the drama and please the critics, they chose to make the image more modest by lengthening her hair to cover her body and soften her facial expression. Rather than ignoring the media concerns, Starbucks met in the middle to celebrate their 35th anniversary.

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Corporate Social Responsibility

The teaching cases in this section explore corporate social responsibility from numerous perspectives, including corporations directly engaged in philanthropy, nonprofits hoping to build partnerships with corporate entities, and agencies/organizations aiming to change policies or norms. The cases inspire dialogue and debate on a broad range of topics including the inherent challenges of corporate philanthropy, the effect of economic policy on local workers, the politics of partnering with government, the role of globalization, and strategic concerns faced by nonprofit activists.

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The Truth About CSR

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• Lisa Chase,
• Sohel Karim

Despite the widely accepted ideal of “shared value,” research led by Harvard Business School’s Kasturi Rangan suggests that this is not the norm—and that’s OK. Most companies practice a multifaceted version of CSR that spans theaters ranging from pure philanthropy to environmental sustainability to the explicitly strategic. To maximize their impact, companies must ensure that initiatives in the various theaters form a unified platform. Four steps can help them do so:

Pruning and aligning programs within theaters. Companies must examine their existing programs in each theater, reducing or eliminating those that do not address an important social or environmental problem in keeping with the firm’s business purpose and values.

Developing metrics to gauge performance. Just as the goals of programs vary from theater to theater, so do the definitions of success.

Coordinating programs across theaters. This does not mean that all initiatives necessarily address the same problem; it means that they are mutually reinforcing and form a cogent whole.

Developing an interdisciplinary CSR strategy. The range of purposes underlying initiatives in different theaters and the variation in how those initiatives are managed pose major barriers for many firms. Strategy development can be top-down or bottom-up, but ongoing communication is key.

These practices have helped companies including PNC Bank, IKEA, and Ambuja Cements bring discipline and coherence to their CSR portfolios.

Most of these programs aren’t strategic—and that’s OK.

Idea in Brief

The problem.

Many companies’ CSR initiatives are disparate and uncoordinated, run by a variety of managers without the active engagement of the CEO. Such firms cannot maximize their positive impact on the social and environmental systems in which they operate.

The Solution

Firms must develop coherent CSR strategies, with activities typically divided among three theaters of practice. Theater one focuses on philanthropy, theater two on improving operational effectiveness, and theater three on transforming the business model to create shared value.

Companies must prune existing programs in each theater to align them with the firm’s purpose and values; develop ways of measuring initiatives’ success; coordinate programs across theaters; and create an interdisciplinary management team to drive CSR strategy.

Most companies have long practiced some form of corporate social and environmental responsibility with the broad goal, simply, of contributing to the well-being of the communities and society they affect and on which they depend. But there is increasing pressure to dress up CSR as a business discipline and demand that every initiative deliver business results. That is asking too much of CSR and distracts from what must be its main goal: to align a company’s social and environmental activities with its business purpose and values. If in doing so CSR activities mitigate risks, enhance reputation, and contribute to business results, that is all to the good. But for many CSR programs, those outcomes should be a spillover, not their reason for being. This article explains why firms must refocus their CSR activities on this fundamental goal and provides a systematic process for bringing coherence and discipline to CSR strategies.

• VR V. Kasturi Rangan is a Baker Foundation Professor at Harvard Business School and a cofounder and cochair of the HBS Social Enterprise Initiative.
• Lisa Chase is a research associate at Harvard Business School and a freelance consultant.
• SK Sohel Karim is a cofounder and the managing director of Socient Associates, a social enterprise consulting firm.

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Four Case Studies on Corporate Social Responsibility: Do Conflicts Affect a Company's Corporate Social Responsibility Policy?

Utrecht Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 51-73, November 2012

23 Pages Posted: 30 Nov 2012 Last revised: 1 Dec 2014

Cristina Cedillo Torres

Utrecht University - School of Law

Mercedes Garcia-French

Utrecht University - School of Law; Utrecht University - School of Governance

Rosemarie Hordijk

Date Written: November 19, 2012

This article studies four multinationals (Apple, Canon, Coca-Cola, Walmart) in relation to their CSR reporting. It will present a general outlook of the company's profile and its compliance with CSR standards. The article will focus on conflict situations concerning the social and environmental CSR practices of the four companies. Coca-Cola was criticized for over-exploiting and polluting water resources in India. Apple, Canon and Walmart were involved in social CSR issues. Walmart was caught using child labor in Bangladesh and has faced gender discrimination charges. In 2010 the media reported on suicides at Foxconn, one of Apple's biggest suppliers. And although Canon did not mention any employee stress-related problems at its factories, they nevertheless occurred. This article will discuss the different CSR issues that emerged within the mentioned multinationals. It will provide a comparison of the companies' CSR reporting before and after the problematic events occurred. The case studies show whether the multinationals acted before a conflict emerged or adapted their CSR policy when the problem was already widely known. Thus, it analyses whether the companies adopted clear and quantifiable policies after the issues occurred. The conclusion points out that the companies not only reported on CSR but that they also adopted long-term commitments. The findings also suggest that the conflicts may have contributed to the adoption of these multinationals' CSR commitments.

Keywords: CSR, multinationals, reporting

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Cristina Cedillo Torres (Contact Author)

Utrecht university - school of law ( email ).

3508 TC Utrecht Utrecht Netherlands

Utrecht University - School of Governance ( email )

Bijlhouwerstraat 6 Utrecht, 3511 ZC Netherlands

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Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Implementation: A Review and a Research Agenda Towards an Integrative Framework

• Review Paper
• Published: 02 February 2022
• Volume 183 , pages 105–121, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Tahniyath Fatima   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2383-3390 1 &
• Said Elbanna   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5891-8258 1  

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In spite of accruing concerted scholarly and managerial interest since the 1950s in corporate social responsibility (CSR), its implementation is still a growing topic as most of it remains academically unexplored. As CSR continues to establish a stronger foothold in organizational strategies, understanding its implementation is needed for both academia and industry. In an attempt to respond to this need, we carry out a systematic review of 122 empirical studies on CSR implementation to provide a status quo of the literature and inform future scholars. We develop a research agenda in the form of an integrated framework of CSR implementation that pronounces its multi-dimensional and multi-level nature and provides a snapshot of the current literature status of CSR implementation. Future research avenues relating to multi-level studies, theoretically supported research models, developing economy settings, and more are recommended. Practitioners can also benefit through utilizing the holistic framework to attain a bird’s eye view and proactively formulate and implement CSR strategies that can be facilitated by collaborations with CSR scholars and experts.

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Introduction

Advocates of corporate social responsibility (hereafter referred to as CSR) propose devising and implementing CSR strategies as an opportunity for organizations. When CSR is looked at from a strategic perspective, it emanates from top management’s vision and values and is not considered an expense but a strategic initiative readily adopted by organizations to differentiate themselves from their competition (Beji et al., 2021 ; Porter & Kramer, 2006 ; Serra-Cantallops et al., 2018 ). The organization’s ulterior motive to receive something in return for going out of its way to do better for the direct and indirect stakeholders indicates extrinsic CSR practices, i.e., strategic CSR (Story & Neves, 2015 ). Currently, CSR is predominantly being viewed as a strategic issue (Zerbini, 2017 ), and such a strategic interest of organizations towards CSR needs to be addressed by scholars when we take into consideration the significant time and resources invested in implementing CSR strategically within the organization (Bansal et al., 2015 ). While CSR has been under the limelight in the academic as well as the industrial sectors since the 1950s, its implementation, however, had not received as much attention (Klettner et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, implementation of CSR like any other strategy implementation is of crucial importance to ensure the successful attainment of one’s goals. Accordingly, an increasing number of academicians, over the past decade, have started focusing on how CSR is implemented in organizations, thereby paving a way for future research (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Du & Vieira, 2012 ).

CSR implementation as indicated by Lindgreen, Swaen, et al. ( 2009 ) is a budding field of research and has seen profound growth since they called attention to it in the special issue of Journal of Business Ethics. Although, various empirical papers have proposed CSR implementation frameworks to assist practitioners in implementing and formulating CSR strategies (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Ingham & Havard, 2017 ; Lindgreen et al., 2011 ), none of the review studies exclusively looked at CSR implementation from a multi-level and a multi-dimensional perspective. In this study, we define CSR implementation as the process that an organization undertakes to increase the awareness levels of CSR issues and CSR strategies, embed CSR values within the organization, communicate CSR initiatives internally and externally, and evaluate the progress of CSR strategies. The very few scholars who have produced reviews on CSR implementation look at specific dimensions of CSR implementation such as communication (Crane & Glozer, 2016 ) or ways of CSR implementation such as CSR washing (Pope & Wæraas, 2016 ). Therefore, conducting a review such as ours at this stage would allow researchers to attain a better idea on the overall progress of research in CSR implementation literature and provide a clearer perspective on future prospects, thereby filling in an important knowledge gap. In regard to facilitating this main research objective, this review paper proposes an integrative framework for CSR implementation and answers the call for a two-stage systematic review on CSR implementation (Lattemann et al., 2009 ; Lindgreen & Swaen, 2010 ). Hence, through the integrative framework, we illustrate what has been done in CSR implementation literature and how can it be enhanced further.

This review study is guided by three developments: (1) the growing amount of time and efforts organizations are putting in towards implementing CSR, (2) an upsurge in organizations’ interests towards strategic CSR, and (3) recognition among CSR scholars of the need to understand how strategies are implemented (Elbanna et al., 2016 ). The structure of this review study is as follows: “ Defining CSR Implementation ” section begins with the theoretical development of the constructs under study and is followed by “ Review Methodology ” section on methodology that outlines the steps taken to initiate the systematic review and sets the stage for this review study. “ Trends in CSR Implementation Research ” section proceeds to discuss the trends discovered through descriptively analyzing the sampled studies. It also portrays the findings of reviewing the CSR implementation literature in six established categories, namely, level of analysis, research methods, theories being used, geographical focus, journal distribution with years of publication, and time lapse of CSR implementation topics. “ Thematic Analysis: An Integrative Framework of CSR Implementation ” section introduces an integrative CSR implementation framework that thematically distributes the CSR implementation literature and proposes a future research agenda. We conclude with “ Conclusion ” section that provides a summarized overview on theoretical and practical implications of this study.

Defining CSR Implementation

The first step of a systematic review entertains a repetitive process of defining, clarifying, and refining (Tranfield et al., 2003 ). As such, we scoured the CSR implementation literature to find any existing conceptual definitions that can support our review process. In our search for what it means to implement CSR, we found two empirical studies which developed CSR implementation frameworks. We used these studies as the foundation to build our own CSR implementation definition, which is supported with the theory of business citizenship as discussed later in this section. The first study was carried out by Maon et al. ( 2009 ), where a nine-stage integrative framework was developed, based on data collected from case studies and theoretically grounded on Lewin’s change model. The second study of Baumann-Pauly et al. ( 2013 ) regarded the process nature of CSR implementation construct, but generalized it into three separate dimensions; (1) commitment to CSR, (2) internal structures and procedures, and (3) external collaboration. Accordingly, these two frameworks were analyzed to procure specific lenses that can entail a better understanding of CSR implementation process. This phase contributed towards attaining richer and micro-level insights on CSR implementation. In addition, we theoretically based our dimensions of CSR implementation on the theory of business citizenship proposed by Logsdon and Wood ( 2002 ). This theory looks into the ethical, social, and political issues surrounding organizations. According to this theory, an organization can be viewed as a citizen such that there exists moral and structural ties among business organizations, humans, and social institutions where social control is exercised by the society on organizations, thereby protecting and enhancing public welfare and private interests.

As such, we identified four distinct dimensions of CSR implementation that concisely portray the CSR implementation process outlined in the two frameworks proposed by Maon et al. ( 2009 ) and Baumann-Pauly et al. ( 2013 ) and are based on the theory of business citizenship that views a corporation as a citizen, where the responsibilities associated with such citizenship towards society and environment come into play. According to Maon et al. ( 2009 ), CSR design and implementation constitute of nine steps. These are (1) raising CSR awareness, (2) assessing organizational purpose in a societal context, (3) establishing a CSR definition and vision, (4) assessing current status of CSR, (5) developing a CSR strategy, (6) implementing the CSR strategy, (7) communicating about CSR strategy, (8) evaluating CSR strategy, and (9) institutionalizing CSR policy. However, Baumann-Pauly et al. ( 2013 ) consider CSR implementation to comprise three dimensions, namely, commitment to CSR, embedding CSR, and external collaboration.

Of the nine steps proposed by Maon et al. ( 2009 ), we considered steps 1 (raising CSR awareness), 5 (embedding CSR), 6 (implementing CSR activities), 7 (communicating about CSR), and 8 (evaluating CSR) for inclusion in CSR implementation. It is worth noting that though step 5 dealt with formulating CSR strategy, a sub-part of this step (5.2) constituted of embedding CSR in the organization, which is also proposed as a CSR implementation dimension by Baumann-Pauly et al. ( 2013 ). Hence, we included step 5 in our typology of CSR implementation dimensions. Similarly, the commitment to CSR dimension proposed by Baumann-Pauly et al. ( 2013 ) takes into consideration the awareness that organizational members show towards CSR as included in step 1 of Maon et al. ( 2009 ). Although, CSR evaluation (step 8) is primarily not a constituent of strategy implementation process, scholars have begun to indicate its importance in the implementation process, where managers monitor strategy progress and take relevant steps for further improvements in CSR implementation (Graafland & Smid, 2019 ; Laguir et al., 2019 ; Rama et al., 2009 ). Steps 2, 3, and 4 are not considered in this study as they represent a part of CSR design, while step 9 identifies with post-implementation. Hence, the four dimensions relate to the need for an organization to accrue sufficient (1) CSR awareness which manifests itself in the form of organization’s commitment to CSR through (2) communicating and (3) embedding CSR , and placing systematic processes in place to (4) evaluate CSR . Overall, these dimensions entail interactions with various external stakeholders and are not restricted to interorganizational dynamics (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ).

CSR awareness includes the act of raising sensitivity of an organization and its members towards CSR issues, where it may be initiated by managers (top-down approach) or employees (bottom-up approach) for strategic or altruistic reasons and includes commitment to CSR through integrating it into policy documents (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Maon et al., 2009 ). Further, CSR communication is directed towards both internal and external stakeholders, where the means or nature of communication and its content need to be identified (Maon et al., 2009 ). The different ways of communication include meetings, corporate internal newsletters, and trainings for internal stakeholders such as employees and board members, while the social and environmental performance of an organization may be disclosed in the form of annual reports or CSR reports and advertisements to external stakeholders.

Embedding CSR entails instilling CSR values among organizational members using tools such as CSR policies, procedures, mission, and vision to reinforce a CSR compliant behavior in operational functions (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Maon et al., 2009 ). Lastly, CSR evaluation includes the measurement of how well the CSR objectives have been met, monitoring the progress of these CSR objectives, and exploring ways to improve CSR performance (Maon et al., 2009 ).

Review Methodology

We utilized a systematic literature approach to accomplish our research goal of surveying the literature on CSR implementation. Systematic reviews are commonly used to ensure transparency and replicability in the review process (Hossain, 2018 ). Given that it is imperative to outline the scope of one’s search prior to ensuing the data collection process (George et al., 2019 ; Tranfield et al., 2003 ), we restricted our range to any research study that exclusively focused on the concept of CSR implementation or its four dimensions, namely, CSR awareness, CSR communication, CSR embedding, and CSR evaluation. The concept of CSR has taken various titular forms in literature, where overlapping constructs like corporate sustainability, corporate social performance, and corporate citizenship have been proposed and are now interchangeably used by researchers (Albinger & Freeman, 2000 ; Evans & Davis, 2014 ; Matten & Crane, 2005 ; Pedersen et al., 2018 ; Wood, 1991 ). However, the terminology of CSR had been most widely used by researchers (Matten & Crane, 2005 ), and as such is adopted in this study. Furthermore, we do not include research examining the concept of sustainability or corporate sustainability as it is an overarching concept that incorporates two different topics of CSR and corporate responsibility (see Fig.  1 ). As such, CSR acts as an intermediary tool that examines the efforts of organizations aimed at balancing the triple bottom line (van Marrewijk, 2003 ).

Mapping of corporate sustainability, CSR, and corporate responsibility (adapted from van Marrewijk, 2003 )

Three databases, namely, EBSCO, Science Direct, and ABI/Inform (ProQuest), were searched with the following set of keywords: “CSR awareness,” “CSR implementation,” “CSR sensitiveness,” “commitment to CSR,” “CSR integration,” “initiating CSR,” “CSR issues,” “CSR communication,” “CSR disclosure,” “CSR report,” “CSR value,” “embedding CSR,” “CSR policies,” “CSR procedure,” “CSR vision,” “CSR mission,” “evaluating CSR,” and “monitoring CSR.” We also took into account different occurrences of the keywords such as “implementing CSR,” “sensitivity to CSR,” and “CSR policy.” Further, our inclusion criteria did not include any time restriction as this would have limited our analysis and inferences of understanding the literature conducted so far on CSR implementation. However, in order to ensure quality of our findings and development of a relevant agenda for future research, we included peer-reviewed journal articles that were published in journals with a rating of at least B and above as per the 2019 ABDC ranking and 3 and above for the 2021 AJG ranking (Hoque, 2014 ). Imposition of the above strict criteria led to collection of 168 research articles. These papers were further analyzed to assess if the focus of their study was related to our research objective. Thus, the selection of the studies was contingent on the main topic of the study in question being either CSR implementation or one of the four dimensions (CSR awareness, CSR communication, CSR embedding, and CSR evaluation). In applying this criteria, we were able to shortlist 140 research studies.

Of the total 140 identified studies, we analyzed the nature of their research and found 18 papers were theoretical in nature. One of the theoretical papers was an editorial and was excluded. The remaining 122 empirical studies Footnote 1 are considered for further review, while the 17 theoretical papers are used to supplement the analysis and findings attained from this systematic review. We now discuss the findings attained from conducting our two-staged narrative synthesis analysis that provides the reader with a descriptive and thematic outlook of CSR implementation literature. In utilizing a narrative synthesis approach, we are able to efficiently provide a narrative on the CSR implementation literature through the use of statistical data (Popay et al., 2006 ). The first stage detailed in Sect.  Trends in CSR Implementation Research analyzes the entire empirical literature descriptively (123 studies) and discusses the underlying trends on the basis of the (1) level of analysis, (2) research methods, (3) theories being used, (4) geographical focus, (5) journal distribution with years of publication, and (6) time lapse of CSR implementation topics. The second stage brings a more nuanced understanding of the empirical literature where the literature is analyzed with respect to a comprehensive outlook of CSR implementation in Sect.  Thematic Analysis: An Integrative Framework of CSR Implementation .

Trends in CSR Implementation Research

Upon analyzing the empirical literature on CSR implementation, we were able to make several inferences that would shed light on research gaps not yet covered in the CSR implementation literature. We followed established review studies in CSR literature (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012 ; Pisani et al., 2017 ) and focused on six aspects to attain a general purview of CSR implementation research conducted to date. First, with respect to the level of analysis , CSR implementation literature, unlike the general CSR literature, does not seem to suffer from lack of focus on individual-level research. However, majority of the empirical research conducted on CSR implementation is at the firm level (refer to Table 1 ). In addition to that, multi-level studies are quite rare with only 8 papers analyzing CSR implementation at multiple levels, e.g., a combination of individual, firm, institutional, industry, and country levels with a combination of at most three levels (Ettinger et al., 2021 ; Helmig et al., 2016 ; Lattemann et al., 2009 ; Lindgreen, Antioco, et al., 2009 a; Lu & Wang, 2021 ; Pomering & Dolnicar, 2009 ; Shen & Benson, 2016 ; Zamir & Saeed, 2020 ). In spite of acknowledging the multi-dimensional nature of CSR implementation (Lindgreen, Swaen, et al., 2009 b), majority of the scholars have failed to conceptualize and operationalize CSR implementation at a multi-dimensional basis. Accordingly, future research needs to take into consideration the multi-dimensional nature of CSR implementation and conduct scientific research that is not limited to a single level of analysis. Other empirical studies looked at various levels of analyses such as advertisement level (Green & Peloza, 2015 ), project level (Rama et al., 2009 ), activity level (Jong & Meer, 2017 ), and interaction level (Muthuri et al., 2009 ).

Second, the CSR implementation literature uses a wide variety of research methods . 36% of the research studies used qualitative research methods, 53% used quantitative methods, and only 11% of the studies have used mixed methods. The use of qualitative methods can be explained by the exploratory nature of the studies, which accounted for 49% of the empirical research, while a majority of 51% studies were explanatory in nature. However, given the growing adoption of CSR by different organizations across industries and countries, scholars have delved into examining implementation of CSR from a more explanatory nature as the trend line shows in Fig.  2 . Further, scholars can utilize mixed method studies in future to attain an insightful and a holistic empirical understanding of their research topic. This would allow the research findings to have both theoretical and geographical validity.

Trend of CSR implementation studies’ nature

Third, the theoretical underpinning of research on CSR implementation is still emergent, where a considerable proportion of the empirical literature, approximately 45%, was missing a theoretical foundation. Having a proper theory is quite essential to easily illustrate complex concepts (Frynas & Yamahaki, 2016 ), thereby indicating scope for future research to have richer theoretical support. Of the remaining 67 research studies that had theoretical support (54% of total empirical literature), a considerable proportion of research (42%) resorted to the use of multiple theories to substantiate their proposed frameworks. The most commonly used theory was stakeholder theory inclusive of its use in research studies with multiple theories (28%, 19 out of 67 papers) (e.g., Ettinger et al., 2018 ; Lindgreen et al., 2011 ; Park & Ghauri, 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2015 ). Lastly, as depicted in Fig.  3 , the remaining 31 research studies (46%) used a diverse range of theories from other disciplines like psychology (theory of planned behavior, balance theory, attribution theory, and social identity theory), communications (diffusion theory, inoculation theory), sociology (systems theory, social exchange theory, social identity theory), and biology (signaling theory).

Theoretical orientations in CSR implementation literature

Fourth, in terms of geographical locations being studied, majority of empirical studies were based on samples obtained from European (37%) and North American regions (22%) with only a small portion of research (16%) constituting samples from Asian countries. Further, only few studies examined other regions, such as Oceania (4%), United Kingdom (3%), Africa (1%), and South America (1%). However, the proportion of studies using samples from multiple regions was comparatively higher at around 16%. Hence, future research needs to study the less researched regions to better understand the role of context in CSR implementation. Further, given the emerging nature of cross-country research in CSR implementation (Lattemann et al., 2009 ), an additional scope exists for researchers to compare different regions in their future research.

Fifth, CSR implementation research, since the special issue in Journal of Business Ethics (Lindgreen, Swaen, et al., 2009 b) has been under the research limelight. The first empirical research conducted on CSR implementation in our collection of articles appeared in 2004, however, focus on CSR implementation has drastically improved since 2009 such that approximately 81% of CSR implementation literature has been published in 2010 and onwards. Moreover, Journal of Business Ethics is the highest contributing journal with a major share of 49% of the research studies. This was closely followed by Journal of Business Research (7%), Business Ethics: A European Review (5%), Business and Society (3%), and Business Strategy and the Environment (3%) while the remaining 32% was distributed among 28 journals. Interestingly, other top journals in the field of business ethics and CSR, such as Business Ethics Quarterly and Corporate Social Responsibility and Management were not reflected in our list of reviewed studies. This could be explained due to the absence of studies relevant to our research topic of CSR implementation and the inability of the journal to meet our selection criteria. While, other journals exclusively focusing on ethics and CSR constituted majority of the CSR implementation research, however, this topic seems relatively unexplored and under-published in general management and accounting focused journals.

Lastly, the ingrained analysis of empirical research concerning CSR implementation has shed the much needed light on how this research has changed over the years. For example, we find that while CSR communication has seen constant growth over the years, other dimensions of CSR implementation have experienced uneven growth and decline in research attention (see Fig.  4 ). The comparatively high focus placed on CSR communication brings into question the negligence of other crucial facets of CSR implementation such as CSR embedding and CSR evaluation. Overall, CSR implementation literature that covered either the entire process of CSR implementation in general or more than one dimension of CSR implementation has been gradually on the rise since 2009–2013. While the latest year indicates low publication rates, this may be attributed to the incompleteness of the time period. Upon learning from the insights gained in this descriptive analysis, we proposed a comprehensive framework to better portray the current status of CSR implementation literature and highlight more nuanced directions for future research.

CSR implementation trends over the years

Thematic Analysis: An Integrative Framework of CSR Implementation

The question that comes to mind at this moment in time is: What can we learn more about CSR implementation? We adapt an approach similar to that taken up by researchers who developed various integrative CSR implementation frameworks based on empirical data (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Maon et al., 2009 ; Yin & Jamali, 2016 ). However, our integrative framework is built upon the analytical insights attained from the selected 140 research studies and keeping in mind our purpose of aiding academicians and practitioners in understanding the complex multi-level nature of CSR implementation. Hence, this review tries to learn from the findings attained in descriptively analyzing the 122 empirical studies in the previous section and proposes directions for future research using a macroscopic lens with the aid of an integrative multi-level CSR implementation framework (see Fig.  5 ) that can have both research and practical implications.

An integrative multi-level CSR implementation framework

The remaining of this section will discuss the four components of our proposed framework: (1) CSR implementation, (2) CSR formulation, (3) CSR outcomes, and (4) CSR context. The main focus is placed on CSR implementation, as it is the main core of this review paper. We discuss the inherent complexity of the CSR implementation construct and how extant literature has conceptualized it, setting the stage to examine two distinct attributes of CSR implementation, namely, its multi-dimensional and multi-level nature. Given the capacity and scope of this study, which is centered on CSR implementation, we lightly touch on the other three components, namely, formulation, outcomes, and context to provide an overview on the whole CSR implementation framework. In discussing CSR formulation, we unravel its absence in studies that have examined CSR implementation and illustrate different ways that future scholars can incorporate it henceforth given the strong link that exists between strategy formulation and implementation. Additionally, the next sub-section on the effect of CSR implementation provides a snapshot on how the CSR implementation literature has heavily examined organizational outcomes, particularly, non-financial, and explains the potential of studying organizational performance comprehensively along with macro-level outcomes. We then conclude this section by extrapolating on the importance of identifying and accounting for contextual variables when studying CSR implementation that may inhibit or drive the implementation process and even potentially moderate the relationship of CSR implementation with CSR formulation and CSR outcomes.

CSR Implementation Construct

CSR implementation is characterized by complexity, where the organization has to deal with different stakeholders, internally and externally. Further, this complexity of CSR implementation is pronounced with its contextual nature across industries, countries, time, and pool of stakeholders (Kleine & Hauff, 2009 ). In spite of CSR implementation experiencing complexity in these varied manners, research studies have so far neglected this aspect (Dobele et al., 2014 ). For example, Luo et al. ( 2017 ) indicate how organizations vary in their CSR disclosure based on their linkages to the central government, highlighting the underlying institutional complexity. On the other hand, Marano and Kostova ( 2016 ) examine how various countries’ institutional forces affect the adoption of CSR practices by various multi-national corporations (MNCs) indicating the presence of transnational complexity (refer to Fig.  5 , link 1-3). Similarly, Polonsky and Jevons ( 2009 ) assert that global brands face three different kinds of complexity when implementing CSR, namely, social issue complexity, organizational complexity, and communication complexity. Communication complexity is the complexity that arises regarding the type of information that needs to be communicated, the consistency that needs to be maintained across the messages and in ensuring that the organizations are also walking the walk and not just talking the talk (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Brunton et al., 2017 ). Along these lines, a series of research articles have examined the concepts of CSR walk and CSR talk, where the former represents actual CSR implementation while the latter focuses on CSR communication (Graafland & Smid, 2019 ; Schoeneborn et al., 2020 ; Wickert et al., 2016 ). Further, Graafland and Smid ( 2019 ) found that the overall impact of CSR implementation on the society and environment is dampened in the presence of incongruency between CSR activities being communicated and CSR activities actually being implemented.

Adding to its complex nature, CSR implementation has escaped conceptualization by most of the studies under review (Klettner et al., 2014 ; Peloza et al., 2009 ; Risi & Wickert, 2017 ; Skouloudis & Evangelinos, 2014 ). On the other hand, researchers who did attempt to conceptualize the construct of CSR implementation either did so from a limited perspective of how CSR implementation occurred in the presence of stakeholder management (Osagie et al., 2016 ; Subramaniam et al., 2017 ), capacity development (Rama et al., 2009 ), social partnerships (Seitanidi & Crane, 2009 ), and employee participation (Bolton et al., 2011 ; Kim et al., 2010 ) or examined CSR implementation on the basis of the different types of CSR activities implemented by organizations (Khan et al., 2015 ; Quintana-García et al., 2018 ; Russo & Tencati, 2009 ). Although extant research has identified CSR implementation as a process comprising various stages (Farmaki, 2019 ), it falls short in operationalizing CSR implementation in a similar manner; rather, the studies were found to resort to using existing CSR scales for measuring CSR implementation (Helmig et al., 2016 ). Similar lack in exploring and discussing the process of CSR implementation was also observed among organizations (Klettner et al., 2014 ; Skouloudis & Evangelinos, 2014 ). Hence, as we acknowledge the existence of complexity in CSR implementation and the prevalent absence in conceptualizing CSR implementation, we need to understand the factors that contribute towards the aforesaid complexity of CSR implementation and how can we deal with these factors. To do so, we try to explain the inherent complexity of CSR implementation by exploring its multi-dimensional and multi-level facets that can assist future studies in better conceptualizing CSR implementation.

Multi-dimensional Nature

First and foremost, much of complexity in CSR implementation arises due to its multi-dimensional nature. Multi-dimensionality refers to information that is distributed over multiple dimensions due to its inability to align together in a single dimension such that the information is uniquely sorted into these various dimensions (Bucaro et al., 2020 ; Spalding & Murphy, 1996 ). Although extant research acknowledges the multi-dimensional nature of CSR implementation (Lindgreen, Swaen, et al., 2009 b), many have failed to conceptualize and operationalize it in such a manner, except for a few scholars. Primarily, these authors have assessed CSR implementation on the basis of the traditional classification of stakeholder theory, i.e., implementing CSR strategies directed towards society, environment, and employees (Muller & Kolk, 2009 ; Reimer et al., 2018 ; Shen & Benson, 2016 ) or as per the triple bottom line approach of economy, ecology, and society (Quintana-García et al., 2018 ; Stekelorum et al., 2019 ). However, the above conceptualizations of CSR implementation resonate with the conceptualization of the generic CSR concept itself, where CSR has been conceptualized in terms of stakeholders being targeted at or the nature of responsibility an organization holds towards its society such as economic, ethical, legal, and discretionary (Maignan & Ferrell, 2000 ; Turker, 2009 ). In the same vein, Frynas and Yamahaki ( 2016 ) suggest that CSR scholars need to diversify their usage of theories and restrict themselves from focusing only on the stakeholder view. Hence, researchers need to properly distinguish between the CSR strategy and its implementation.

Accordingly, our proposed conceptualization of CSR implementation can aid scholars and organizations in perceiving the multi-dimensional nature of CSR implementation by focusing on the four dimensions proposed in Sect.  2 . Future research can also test whether these four dimensions are practiced with equal fervor across and within organizations and industries (Walters & Anagnostopoulos, 2012 ). This will enable CSR implementation research to extend beyond CSR communication, which majority of identified empirical research in this study focused exclusively on with very little focus being placed on other CSR implementation dimensions or the construct as a whole. While CSR communication plays an important role in the implementation process, it, however, does not necessarily ensure that these practices are in fact carried out in reality (Arvidsson, 2010 ; Fassin, 2008 ).

CSR communication literature has seen a rich growth over the years (see Fig.  4 ) and as such has diversified into various sub-topics, with CSR disclosure or reporting being the most researched form of CSR communication, particularly in the accounting literature (Gödker & Mertins, 2018 ). Scholars have extensively examined the antecedents and outcomes of CSR disclosure on various fronts: individual, organizational, and country levels (Bucaro et al., 2020 ; DeTienne & Lewis, 2005 ; Lu & Wang, 2021 ; Tan et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Further, CSR communication has now diversified into the arena of social media where direct and frequent interactions with customers have heightened (Chu et al., 2020 ; Saxton et al., 2021 ). In addition to customers, CSR communication research seems to have predominantly focused on external stakeholders in general, including investors (Bucaro et al., 2020 ; Hockerts & Moir, 2004 ). Consequently, no research in our shortlisted set of studies examined CSR communication from an internal perspective. A study by Schaefer et al. ( 2019 ) does examine the impact of CSR advertisements on embedding CSR values in employees of an European energy provider, however, the CSR communication under assessment is targeted at external stakeholders. Given the strong inter-relations that exist among actions and communication of CSR activities, examining CSR communication from an interorganizational perspective can tap into the unexplored avenue of its effect on employee involvement in the CSR implementation process (Schoeneborn et al., 2020 ; Sendlhofer, 2020 ; Tourky et al., 2020 ).

Multi-level Nature

Second, while examining different dimensions of CSR implementation surely gives one the wholesome picture, one cannot ignore the multiple levels involved as the above four dimensions of CSR implementation are considered. However, as per our review only a small fraction of the empirical research on CSR implementation (6%) had conducted multi-level research. Hence, academicians have not managed to pay attention to the multiple levels that are in-built when implementing CSR. In referring to the concept of multi level, we propose that CSR implementation involves actors and characteristics at various levels in its environment such that employees, customers, and managers form individual level, while organizational characteristics such as firm size, age, ownership constitute organizational level, and so on. The conceptualization of CSR implementation in our study as discussed in Sect.  2 shows its inherent multi-level nature, where for instance, CSR values may be embedded in the form of CSR vision and mission at organizational level, while CSR awareness initiated by managers or employees occurs at individual level.

The multi-level studies under examination in this review examined CSR implementation at different levels, namely, country, institutional, industry, organizational, and individual. These studies examined (1) drivers of CSR implementation (refer Fig.  5 , link 1-3) like corporate governance and culture background (Lu & Wang, 2021 ), organizational location and distribution of country income (Zamir & Saeed, 2020 ), stakeholders and their pressures (Helmig et al., 2016 ; Pomering & Dolnicar, 2009 ), country governance, industry effect, and organizational characteristics (Lattemann et al., 2009 ); and (2) outcomes of CSR implementation including market performance (Helmig et al., 2016 ), customer attitudes (Ettinger et al., 2021 ), customer perceptions (Lindgreen, Antioco, et al., 2009 a), and employee work behavior (Shen & Benson, 2016 ). Hence, our integrative multi-level framework of CSR implementation considers the five levels discussed above as shown in Fig.  5 .

While researchers have used institutional-level interchangeably with country level due to institutionalized practices of governments or economies (Pisani et al., 2017 ), institutionalization can occur at an industry level as well (O'Connor & Shumate, 2010 ) indicating the need to distinguish institutional level of analysis. While country-level perspective pertains to factors such as government regulations and policies (Pisani et al., 2017 ), institutional-level factors, on the other hand, include institutionalized practices in the economy or corporations (O'Connor & Shumate, 2010 ). Conclusively, industry-level perspective consists of factors such as industry type (Lattemann et al., 2009 ), organizational-level perspective pertains to firm characteristics (Lattemann et al., 2009 ), and individual level refers to employees and managers (Graafland & Zhang, 2014 ; Helmig et al., 2016 ).

CSR Formulation: An Overlooked Antecedent of CSR Implementation

CSR strategy implementation is preceded by its formulation, which consists of decision making upon attaining and interpreting information (Khan, 2018 ). Given the integrative nature of this multi-level framework of CSR implementation, it becomes crucial to consider its critical antecedent, i.e., CSR formulation. Maon et al. ( 2009 ), in their CSR design and implementation framework, identified various steps involved in the formulation of CSR strategies; understanding organization’s societal purpose, identifying its stakeholders, defining CSR vision and mission, assessing current CSR practices, benchmarking with competition and developing the CSR strategy. Additionally, higher CSR orientation of board members also ensures higher proactivity in forming and implementing firm’s CSR strategy, as we identify through the links 1-2 and 1-3 in Fig.  5 (Shaukat et al., 2016 ). On the other hand, various researchers have focused on the sense making concept and linked it to how managers make sense of CSR (as opposed to having planned goals) and accordingly formulate CSR strategies, thereby dictating their implementation as depicted in links 1-2 and 2-3 in Fig.  5 (Hanke & Stark, 2009 ; Jiang et al., 2018 ; Khan, 2018 ). While the presence of stakeholders in CSR strategy formulation was found to positively influence CSR implementation (van Tulder et al., 2009 ), their real world presence in CSR formulation seems to be minimal (Trapp, 2014 ). Accordingly, future research can examine the barriers to stakeholder involvement in CSR formulation and propose ways in which organizations can enhance their involvement (link 1-2, Fig.  5 ). Moreover, scholars can also run comparative studies through collecting field data to test the difference in effectiveness of CSR implementation among organizations that involved stakeholders in formulating CSR versus organizations that had no stakeholder involvement.

Furthermore, very few researchers consider the formulation of CSR as an antecedent or control for its effect in their research studies when studying CSR implementation (Baumann-Pauly et al., 2013 ; Maon et al., 2009 ). Instead several researchers have focused directly on examining various other antecedents of CSR implementation. Accordingly, one can examine if the mediation of CSR formulation can change the impact of certain antecedents like lack of top management commitment, lack of CSR knowledge and skills, and uncertain government regulations (Graafland & Zhang, 2014 ; Luo et al., 2019 ) on CSR implementation from negative to positive. Hence, linking CSR formulation with its implementation can provide a richer feedback as it gives deeper insights into the successful execution of the formulated strategy, where successful CSR implementation can be treated as a dependent variable.

The Impact of CSR Implementation

The outcomes in CSR research have prominently focused on organizational outcomes with special attention being given to financial performance, thereby ignoring the appropriate assessment of the success of a CSR strategy by looking at its non-financial performance indicators such as employees’ extra-role behavior, consumer’s perceptions, and social and environmental performance impact (Fatima & Elbanna, 2020 ). On the other end, CSR implementation, the subset of CSR research literature, has focused exclusively on the non-financial indicators including corporate reputation (Axjonow et al., 2018 ; Kim, 2019 ), consumer purchase intentions (Bartikowski & Berens, 2021 ; Groza et al., 2011 ), and various stakeholder satisfaction such as consumers (Cantrell et al., 2015 ) and employees (Brunton et al., 2017 ; Peloza et al., 2009 ). Comparatively, only four research papers by Helmig et al. ( 2016 ), Rhou et al. ( 2016 ), Pham and Tran ( 2020 ), and Platonova et al. ( 2018 ) have looked at financial indicators. Further, the measurement of CSR performance in CSR literature has been used interchangeably to reflect the construct of CSR (Beji et al., 2021 ; Ge & Li, 2021 ; Öberseder et al., 2014 ), thereby creating a conundrum when it comes to assessing the comprehensive impact of CSR implementation strategies. Consequently, CSR implementation research requires clarification in understanding the nature of its impact on organizational performance, where it may also act as a mediator between CSR formulation and CSR impact (Graafland & Smid, 2019 ).

Future research, hence, needs to consider both financial and non-financial indicators when examining the organizational performance outcome of CSR implementation. This can be achieved, for example, through adopting the sustainability balanced scorecard perspective when measuring organizational outcomes of CSR implementation (Elbanna et al., 2015 ; Fatima & Elbanna, 2020 ). In doing so, organizations can effectively assess the overall impact of CSR implementation on CSR performance constituting social, environmental, and financial performance. In addition to examining these micro-level and meso-level (industry level, institutional level) outcomes, future research can also explore how implementation of CSR strategies within organizations and industries can lead to a macro-level sustainability impact such as the country’s economic and sustainable development (Verk et al., 2021 ) through improvement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) index (a standard indicator of country’s sustainability performance developed by United Nations ( 2020 )) (refer to link 3-4, Fig.  5 ).

The Context Matters

Referring to the integrative multi-level framework shown in Fig.  5 , we can clearly see how various factors interact with each other at several levels during CSR formulation and implementation. This framework provides a multi-dimensional view of CSR implementation, examines the nature of interconnectivity among the antecedents and consequences of CSR implementation, and presents CSR implementation in a multi-level manner. While, we do not push for the scholarly need to examine and account for all the variables depicted in Fig.  5 , however, we do aim to bring forth the need for future scholars to consider the context of their study and account for the impact of certain variables that may confound their results when studying CSR implementation. The various perspectives under contextual variables relate to five different levels of analysis highlighted previously in Sect.  5.1.2 (individual, firm, industry, institutional, and country levels). The categorization of these various levels has been done based on the context as per the extant literature review on CSR implementation (Helmig et al., 2016 ; Lattemann et al., 2009 ; Lindgreen, Antioco, et al., 2009 a; Shen & Benson, 2016 ). For ease of understanding, each level is listed under a stand-alone perspective that portrays various items CSR implementation scholars can explore. For instance, items such as pressure from or involvement of stakeholders like customers, employees, managers, board members, etc., relate to individual-level characteristics.

As per our earlier discussion, CSR formulation has been neglected to a certain extent by CSR implementation scholars, where significant research scope also exists in understanding if certain situations or characteristics can impact the CSR formulation–CSR implementation relationship (link 2-1-3 in Fig.  5 ). For example, to what extent organizational size or industry type and stakeholder pressures (Helmig et al., 2016 ) strengthen or weaken this relationship? Our knowledge of extant theories such as institutional theory and stakeholder theory posit for the prevalence of a positive moderation effect. The institutional theory leads to the process of ‘isomorphism’ which can be defined as a process that constrains a unit in a particular set of environmental conditions to resonate with other units existing in similar situations (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983 ). As leading organizations in controversial industries such as oil and mining respond to concerns on their societal and environmental impact (Dobele et al., 2014 ; Du & Vieira, 2012 ), other organizations are complied to follow suit to maintain legitimacy, thereby eliciting the potential role of industry type in moderating the relationship between CSR formulation and implementation. Additionally, Miska et al. ( 2016 ) found that home country characteristics played a pivotal role in shaping the type of CSR strategy that MNCs engaged in. Thus, the effect of institutional level of indicators need to be accounted for when examining the link between CSR formulation and implementation.

Similarly, stakeholder theory emphasizes an organization’s relationships with other stakeholders consisting of employees, customers, suppliers, society, and others by stressing on the importance of satisfying relevant stakeholders (Jamali, 2008 ; Zerbini, 2017 ). As organizations in the current century face rising pressures from various stakeholders to depict socially responsible behavior (Erdiaw-Kwasie et al., 2017 ; Shahzad & Sharfman, 2017 ), they are bound by normative pressure as per institutional theory to comply with these stakeholder needs to establish a sense of legitimacy among their stakeholders. Thus, through building upon the interplay of these three theories, namely, institutional theory, legitimacy theory, and stakeholder theory, future research can probe into the following research question: Are larger organizations or manufacturing industries or higher stakeholder pressures more prone to having a stronger CSR formulation–implementation relationship, in comparison to smaller organizations or service industries or lower stakeholder pressures?

Figure  5 portrays various variables under each of the five perspectives or levels that can either act as drivers or inhibitors towards implementation of CSR. Scholars can accordingly utilize this framework to attain a holistic view and empirically examine how these contextual variables may impact CSR implementation strategies of their sample under study and control for the relevant contextual variables. For instance, CSR scholars have found top managerial characteristics played a significant role towards implementation (Rodríguez Bolívar et al., 2015 ). Scholars can further extend this finding to examine if top management characteristics have a differential impact on CSR implementation dimensions, where the type of leadership may have an effect on the nature of CSR values (strategic or normative) being embedded in the organization’s employees (link 2-1-3). The upper echelons theory which states that an organization is a function of its leaders’ beliefs and thoughts as these leaders make most of the important organizational strategic decisions (Quintana-García et al., 2018 ) finds support for the above proposed moderating impact. Ethical leadership style, for instance, can instill a sense of ethical behavior among employees (Hansen et al., 2016 ) through posing as social learning models and establishing a reward system for ethically appropriate behavior (Fatima, 2020 ).

Further, as per our findings from reviewing the CSR implementation literature, some industries have rarely been studied with respect to their CSR implementation strategies such as the sports and gaming industry (link 1-3). Accordingly, future research can actively collaborate with practitioners to conduct field studies and longitudinal studies, where practitioners can execute and examine CSR implementation, while CSR scholars can act as consultants and conduct quality research. Additionally, with the influx of COVID-19 pandemic, the topical nature of CSR implementation has heightened such that organizations are now actively focusing towards building their social performance to build a safe and healthy organizational work environment and image (Donthu & Gustafsson, 2020 ; He & Harris, 2020 ). This reaction of organizations also finds theoretical support in literature as per the environmental contingency theory that asserts the influence of environment on various characteristics of the organization, such as strategy, task uncertainty, size, and technology (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2013 , p. 98). Hence, scholars can effectively conduct prospective research as opposed to the retrospective research by studying the actions taken by organizations towards their CSR implementation strategies in response to such environmental changes in real time.

Considerable number of studies have managed to study the contextual nature of CSR implementation by examining the presence of mediating and moderating variables (Eberle et al., 2013 ; Ginder et al., 2021 ; Karaosmanoglu et al., 2016 ; Lecuyer et al., 2017 ; Skard & Thorbjørnsen, 2014 ; Vlachos et al., 2009 ). It is worthy to note that all of these research studies have examined mediators and moderators only at individual level and firm level, with an exception of Thorne et al. ( 2017 ) who carried out a cross-country comparison on CSR disclosures. Our framework indicates that multiple perspectives can have a moderating impact on the relationship between CSR implementation and outcomes (refer to link 3-1-4 in Fig.  5 ). For instance, referring to our earlier discussion of stakeholder and institutional theories, future researchers can also examine whether the presence of stakeholder pressures in the form of governmental regulations, active NGOs, and media positively strengthen the relationship between CSR implementation dimensions like CSR awareness, CSR embedding, CSR communication, and outcomes like organizational legitimacy, customer’s perceptions, and organizational performance (Du & Vieira, 2012 ; Pomering & Dolnicar, 2009 ; Rhou et al., 2016 ).

Moreover, given the relatively low level of research being conducted in developing regions such as South America, Asia, and Africa, future research can study whether uncertain regulations weaken the relationship between CSR embedding in suppliers and supplier loyalty or supplier compliance through weakening the coercive pressures felt by organizations in compliance with institutional theory (Boyd et al., 2007 ; Lim & Phillips, 2008 ). Further research ideas can also be attained through scrutinizing our proposed framework where CSR implementation researchers can expand their theoretical support from merely focusing on stakeholder and legitimacy theory to other theories such as structural contingency theory for industry perspective, leadership contingency theory for individual perspective, intergroup theory for CSR embedding, population ecology for institutional perspective, agency theory for the relationship between CSR formulation and CSR implementation in SMEs and so on.

While it is difficult to ensure that one research study covers various levels as depicted in the CSR implementation framework, it, however, becomes easier to realize the presence of multiple factors that may affect CSR implementation–outcomes relationship. With this knowledge at hand, academicians can account and control for the factors, when applicable. Similarly, practitioners can also utilize this framework to get an overarching purview of CSR implementation and better understand the various factors that may positively or adversely impact the different outcomes of CSR implementation, and accordingly, take the necessary proactive decisions.

Upon analyzing the empirical literature trends on CSR implementation in Sect.  4 , several suggestions for future research were made pertaining to the nature of research, level of analysis, theoretical support, and geographical expansion. Further insights were gained through the depiction of an integrative multi-level CSR implementation framework developed in the previous section of thematic analysis. In doing so, this research study has made several theoretical and practical implications, as discussed below.

In terms of theoretical implications, first, we found that scholars have placed a considerable amount of focus towards examining the factors impacting implementation of CSR (antecedents, mediators, and moderators) and the organizational-level consequences of CSR implementation. In comparison, fewer studies have looked at non-organizational consequences or carried out field studies or longitudinal case studies to examine the implementation of complete CSR strategies. Hence, one of the prime insights for future research involve attaining deeper insights into how organizations implement CSR with respect to CSR awareness, CSR embedding, CSR communication, and CSR evaluation. In doing so, researchers would be able to examine CSR implementation from multi-dimensional and multi-level perspectives.

Second, one of the prominent difficulties encountered by organizations when implementing CSR relates to prioritizing stakeholders’ interests (Lee, 2011 ; Porter & Kramer, 2006 ). Different organizations place importance on different stakeholders and as such, a universal solution to prioritize stakeholders becomes difficult. We attempt to resolve this dilemma by proposing a CSR implementation definition (outlined in Sect.  2 ) that indicates the process of CSR implementation as an integrated and a comprehensive process which entails coordinated involvement of all stakeholders at different degrees throughout the four dimensions of CSR implementation.

Third, enhancing from the above research agenda, scholars could also link how multiple dimensions of CSR implementation relate to each other. For instance, Pomering and Dolnicar ( 2009 ) examined whether CSR communication by organizations leads to higher CSR awareness of customers. Furthermore, within the field of CSR implementation, some of its dimensions have not been as heavily researched as the rest; CSR communication has been of prime focus for several academicians. However, only three studies were found to study CSR evaluation as a part of the implementation process (Cowper-Smith & de Grosbois, 2011 ; Schaefer et al., 2019 ; Vlachos et al., 2009 ). Evaluating CSR in the implementation phase resonates with assessing the extent to which CSR objectives are met. However, CSR evaluation has mostly focused on assessing CSR performance using secondary databases like Kinder, Lyndenberg, and Domini (Rhou et al., 2016 ). Thus, to examine CSR evaluation as a part of the implementation phase, researchers need to study other internal stakeholders in addition to employees, such as way of monitoring CSR strategies by both board members and top managements. Accordingly, examining other CSR implementation dimensions in detail, specifically perceiving them from a different lens would enrich the extant knowledge on CSR implementation.

Fourth, most of the CSR implementation–performance literature has looked at organizational and individual-level outcomes. Given the very nature of an organization is to ensure profitability, the prime focus has been placed by researchers in identifying how CSR implementation impacts organizational outcomes such as organizational reputation and CSR performance. Similarly, customers are deemed as the most important stakeholder given their direct impact on organization’s profitability, and thereby, its sustenance. Accordingly, most prior studies have examined the impact of CSR strategy implementation on customer perceptions and behaviors. However, a research gap exists with regard to studying the impact on other external stakeholders like suppliers’ loyalty and suppliers’ compliance. Moreover, the impact of organization’s CSR implementation has been restricted to micro-level and meso-level, where country-level impacts such as on economic improvement and increase in sustainability index have not yet been studied. Therefore, researchers need to examine meso-level and macro-level impacts of implementing CSR strategies. Understandably, the absence of studies examining macro-level outcomes of CSR maybe due to the exclusion of sustainability construct from our literature search which is more prominently linked with country-level outcomes like sustainable development goals. Future reviews can, as such, consider the prospect of examining implementation of sustainability strategies as opposed to the concept of CSR which was the focus in this review.

The restrictive journal criteria used in this systematic review pose a constricted presentation of the CSR implementation literature. However, we followed the standard journal selection criteria used widely across general business and management reviews. Further, we aimed to examine high-quality research on CSR implementation, thereby justifying our usage of a restricted journal criteria. In order to attain a more general view and to better understand the research trends of a vast literature of CSR implementation that includes research in established ethics and CSR focused journals like Journal of Cleaner Production and Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, future scholars can conduct bibliometric analysis or meta-analysis with a more relaxed journal criteria.

This research study also produces various implications for practitioners regarding CSR implementation. First, practitioners can make use of the proposed CSR implementation dimensions that stresses on its multi-level and multi-dimensional nature and identifies it as a process that is not restricted to a stakeholder view. Accordingly, managers can make appropriate decisions to ensure CSR strategies are properly implemented in their organizations and are not solely restricted to financial investments. Second, top management and policy makers can utilize the CSR implementation framework for a bird’s eye view on the potential factors that can impact CSR implementation and the possible outcomes of CSR implementation. In doing so, organizations can pay heed to contextual factors that may impede or promote implementation of CSR and its relationship with different outcomes. Third, practitioners, upon realizing the multi-level impact of CSR implementation, which goes beyond the individual and organizational levels, can reflect upon their current organizational CSR strategies and accordingly, revise or formulate better versions.

To sum, CSR implementation has come a long way in the past decade and still has a long way to go. This review paper attempts to enlighten the research community with insights on the progress of CSR implementation research and how it can be further improved to enrich our understanding of the concept of CSR implementation. With the proposition of CSR implementation dimensions that facilitate the review of literature, an integrative multi-level CSR implementation framework has been developed to assist future research on CSR implementation in getting closer to reality by portraying the interconnectivity in implementing any organizational strategic decision. With the above research contributions, this study attempted to set the stage for future research to build upon by conducting richer and deeper empirical studies that examine CSR implementation in the right light.

A table reviewing the literature on CSR implementation has been submitted as supplementary material due to paper length considerations and is also available from the authors upon request.

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Fatima, T., Elbanna, S. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Implementation: A Review and a Research Agenda Towards an Integrative Framework. J Bus Ethics 183 , 105–121 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05047-8

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What Is a CSR Report & Why Is It Important?

• 20 Apr 2021

Over the past decade, corporate social responsibility reports—also called CSR reports, impact reports, or sustainability reports—have become more common, a trend that’s predicted to continue . In fact, 90 percent of companies on the S&P 500 index published CSR reports in 2019—up from 86 percent in 2018, 75 percent in 2014, and only 20 percent in 2011.

So, what is a CSR report? What do quality CSR reports look like, and why do they matter for businesses and society? Here are the answers to these questions and ways you can help craft a CSR report for your organization.

What Is a CSR Report?

According to the online course Sustainable Business Strategy , corporate social responsibility is the idea that a business has a responsibility to the society and environment in which it operates. Many businesses striving to be socially responsible use the triple bottom line —an organization’s impact on people and the planet, in addition to its profits—to determine strategic priorities.

A corporate social responsibility (CSR) report is an internal- and external-facing document companies use to communicate CSR efforts and their impact on the environment and community. An organization’s CRS efforts can fall into four categories : environmental, ethical, philanthropic, and economic.

In some countries, it’s mandatory for corporations to publish CSR reports annually. Although not yet required of companies based in the United States, some predict it will be in the not-so-distant future.

Currently, there isn’t a common set of CSR reporting standards in the US. This provides organizations the freedom to report on CSR efforts in whatever format they choose and highlight whatever information they wish. The lack of standards can, however, make it difficult to compare reports across companies. It also enables firms to leave out areas where their efforts failed or harmed people or the environment.

CSR reports are typically presented in a digital format for easy distribution, but they can also be printed and presented to stakeholders in person. A CSR report’s layout can range from a straightforward text document to a designed, visually stimulating packet.

Access your free e-book today.

Examples of CSR Reports

To help you envision what your organization’s CSR report could look like, here are several examples of recent CSR reports from well-known companies:

• The Walt Disney Company’s 2019 Corporate Social Responsibility Update
• Cisco’s 2020 Corporate Social Responsibility Impact Report
• General Motors’ 2019 Sustainability Report
• IBM’s 2019 Corporate Responsibility Report
• Warby Parker’s 2018 Impact Report

Each example begins with a letter from a corporate executive, such as the president, chief executive officer, or chief sustainability officer, has a table of contents, and is visually appealing. These examples range from 42 pages to nearly 180 pages long—a testament to the flexibility of CSR reporting standards.

You may notice that the examples have different wording in the titles. Once again, because there’s no set structure for CSR reports, the framing is up to the individual company and what it would like to highlight.

Many companies create specific branding strategies for CSR efforts and reports. For instance, note Warby Parker’s clean, personal aesthetic throughout, or General Motors’ clever slogan on its report’s front page: “driving sustainable value.” As seen in Cisco’s report, using infographics is an effective way to visualize company data to highlight trends and changes made over time.

Each CSR report is different and highlights the company’s strong suits, goals, and plans. Dig into each example to see what aspects you may incorporate in your company’s report.

Related : 5 Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility That Were Successful

Why Are CSR Reports Important?

CSR reports are a way for an organization to communicate its mission, efforts, and outcomes to external and internal stakeholders. In addition to employees, decision-makers, and shareholders, these include customers, the local community, and society at large.

If a company has been bold and successful in its CSR efforts, the release of its CSR report is as much a communication tool as it is a marketing and public relations event. Especially because of the lack of mandatory guidelines, you can use these reports to highlight your organization’s achievements and build social responsibility into your brand’s identity.

Releasing a CSR report on an annual basis can also create accountability. For example, if your organization publishes its goal to be carbon neutral by 2025 in its 2021 CSR report, chances are employees will feel driven to accomplish that goal so its completion can be noted in the 2025 report. If a goal isn’t reached in its intended time frame, the CSR reporting process can prompt an examination of how the project went off track and what can be done to realign and accomplish the goal in a realistic timeframe.

Improving Your Company’s CSR Efforts

CSR reports are an effective way to communicate your business’s efforts, goals, and plans to help the environment and community, along with the impact it’s had so far. If, however, your business hasn’t started its social responsibility efforts yet, it’s never too late.

In the online course Sustainable Business Strategy , Harvard Business School Professor Rebecca Henderson implores professionals to start with purpose and build the business case from there. What’s an issue that impacts your business, customers, or community? Start by identifying a cause that’s important to members of your organization, and then brainstorm a quantifiable goal you can set that would help that cause.

To make the business case to skeptical members of your team, consider the publicity value, customer and employee loyalty, and return on investment of committing to a sustainable or socially impactful cause.

If you or your colleagues are looking for a formal foundation in sustainable capitalism and how to be a socially responsible business, explore Sustainable Business Strategy to build the necessary skills to do well as a business while doing good in the world.

Once the ball is rolling, design a CSR report outlining your company’s efforts. Even if it’s just a few pages long, explaining your efforts, impact, and plans is worth the time. If you’re driven by purpose and a clear plan, others may read about it and support your business on its journey toward corporate social responsibility.

Are you interested in making an impact on your community and the planet? Explore our three-week online course Sustainable Business Strategy and other Business in Society courses to learn how to be a purpose-driven professional. If you aren't sure which course is the right fit, download our free course flowchart to determine which best aligns with your goals.

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Four Case Studies on Corporate Social Responsibility: Do Conflicts Affect a Company’s Corporate Social Responsibility Policy?

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This article studies four multinationals (Apple, Canon, Coca-Cola, Walmart) in relation to their CSR reporting. It will present a general outlook of the company's profile and its compliance with CSR standards. The article will focus on conflict situations concerning the social and environmental CSR practices of the four companies. Coca-Cola was criticized for over-exploiting and polluting water resources in India. Apple, Canon and Walmart were involved in social CSR issues. Walmart was caught using child labour in Bangladesh and has faced gender discrimination charges. In 2010 the media reported on suicides at Foxconn, one of Apple's biggest suppliers. And although Canon did not mention any employee stress-related problems at its factories, they nevertheless occurred. This article will discuss the different CSR issues that emerged within the mentioned multinationals. It will provide a comparison of the companies' CSR reporting before and after the problematic events occurred. The case studies show whether the multinationals acted before a conflict emerged or adapted their CSR policy when the problem was already widely known. Thus, it analyses whether the companies adopted clear and quantifiable policies after the issues occurred. The conclusion points out that the companies not only reported on CSR but that they also adopted long-term commitments. The findings also suggest that the conflicts may have contributed to the adoption of these multinationals' CSR commitments.

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How Cummins infuses social impact across their business

In today's episode, we explore an inspiring Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) case study with Cummins.

We discuss why collaboration between business teams in a large organization is crucial to growing social impact...and how to do it. We talk about CSR challenges and opportunities in larger organizations and how to embed social impact in every aspect of the business.

Finally, Cummins walks through two social impact programs that have led to significant business impacts both internally and externally.

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So today we have a very special show. We have three special guests. Our first guest who is actually today's co-host is Kathryn Pisco with Benevity. I also have Amanda Reid who is a Global Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Program Manager with Cummins , and Whitney Wilber, who is the Global Employer Brand [00:01:00] Leader with Cummins as well.

Kathryn Pisco:

Awesome. Welcome. And thanks so much, Karl. Whitney and Amanda, we're so happy to have you as part of the show today.

For those of you that are listening or watching and may not know Cummins, these two ladies are joining us from Cummins, which is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures and distributes engines, filtration, and power generation products.

While they're headquartered in Columbus, Indiana, but they have over 61,000 [00:01:30] global employees. And so really excited to hear a little bit today from you both.

And I figured it'd be great if you don't mind, we could kick it off. If you could both tell us a little bit about your role at Cummins.

We like to... We've had a lot of CSR professionals on in the past that have talked about their roles, and this is a little unique and kind of fun to have two folks that aren't necessarily in CSR, but working closely with the CSR [00:02:00] team. So Amanda, would you be able to start us off?

Amanda Reid:

Sure. Thanks for having us also. We're really excited to be here today.

So my role is I get to help infuse strategies for our diversity, equity and inclusion efforts, primarily for talent acquisition, but on a global scale.

So all job categories, all levels of experience and how can we just be really thoughtful and mindful about designing systems and processes that drive [00:02:30] equity in very ethical ways.

I also have the pleasure to get to help support the CARE initiative , which is a special initiative through our CEO under our corporate responsibility arm, and it's Cummins advocating for racial equity.

And it is a very passionate movement within the organization.

Whitney is actually someone who is supporting some of those work streams as well as an employee for Cummins where we're trying to help our communities do better and also think [00:03:00] about driving equity more ethically in areas that are controversial for some companies, but where we see it as just being a part of our values and doing great things.

Kathryn Pisco: And Whitney, could you tell us a little bit about your role too?

Whitney Wilber:

Sure. I would love to. And thank you for having me.

So my name is Whitney Wilber and I lead global employer branding and recruitment marketing for Cummins.

It's a little bit of an interesting space because myself and my team sit within our external communications team within our communications [00:03:30] organization, but we are very much embedded within our talent acquisition organization.

And our team, we have a lot of passion around supporting and building brand and helping to source top talent for Cummins.

Our responsibilities really live within talent attraction communications, employer brand strategy and build outs, [00:04:00] EVP.

That would be employer value proposition development and adoption concentrated on those efforts. And we're really focused on the candidate experience through not only our own marketing channels and how we attract and bring in talent, source talent, but also through the technology through our talent acquisition organization.

And we're really focused in partnering with people like Amanda [00:04:30] when it comes to social sourcing and digital marketing campaigns to support talent acquisition

Just to kick us off, I wanted to just talk a little bit about, I think we all kind of know this to be true, but then there's research that backs it up.

In fact, a recent Forbes study revealed that companies who promote collaborative work were up to five times more likely to be really high performing.

But collaborating during at any time is really tough. And I think especially during COVID when we're all remote [00:05:00] is even more challenging.

And so I was hoping, you already spoke to it a little bit when you were explaining your roles and collaboration, but why have you found that it's so important to work cross-functionally at Cummins and then specifically if we can dial in even more around to really also find ways to collaboratively infuse that social impact in these programs? Whitney, would you mind starting us off?

Importance of cross-functional collaboration when growing social impact

Sure, sure.

Being able to work cross-functionally with different teams [00:05:30] not within our own organizations is key for our employer brand group, especially around instances where we want to bring our EVP to life and step outside the box with making, I guess you could say partnerships with different charities or organizations that make an impact and really represent our values.

Part of my job and my team's [00:06:00] responsibility is really to bring our employer value proposition to life.

And by working cross-functionally with groups such as Corporate Responsibility, we're able to understand more about partnerships that are in place with different charities and different organizations and not-for-profits and how we can really story-tell and insert those great bits of work that we're doing to positively impact people's lives not [00:06:30] only in the communities in which Cummins has a location or a presence, but really globally.

So working cross-functionally with corporate responsibility with partners within talent acquisition, and also with leaders within the business that we're trying to attract into different technology spaces.

It's really important for us to make those connections network [00:07:00] even if it feels a bit foreign. We tend to always make a connection and create really good work together.

I love the way you put that too because it doesn't always... It feels a little foreign or maybe a little unnatural and it's actually just pushing yourself to do that.

And then it seems, and excited to hear even more, but once you do that, the possibilities are endless.

Amanda, would you be able to speak to that at all as well?

Well, I [00:07:30] think especially for an organization our size, we're so big, we're so global, it's really at the core about recognizing and taking advantage of the expertise that is all around you.

Corporate Responsibility, they know how to vet these organizations.

They understand how to decipher what can make the greatest impact. Whitney's team knows how to tell those stories, how to touch people.

And our team, we have the DE&I [00:08:00] expertise and the talent acquisition expertise.

So we know what our strategies are, what we want to accomplish, but together is how we have to make that happen.

Our strategies are going to die on the vine without Whitney's team there to actually bring them to life.

And without those relationships from Corporate Responsibility, how could we really trust that we're making the right decisions for partnerships?

And maximizing things they've already built and optimizing [00:08:30] them even more.

We're right now having conversations with an amazing refugee program that our Corporate Responsibility group has worked with for years, and we want to optimize that.

We want to move past the support systems we've already been providing, and let's start using the other things we have at our hands like jobs and people who are experts in resume writing and we can actually find people life-changing opportunities, [00:09:00] not just helping them set up for success and helping them with those other aspects.

It's really a win-win-win, but we need each other to achieve that.

So you both mentioned the importance of... Well, you actually emphasized the importance of working with the corporate social responsibility teams.

Can you mention why that's important and any of the successes or challenges that you've had when you've had to work with those teams?

And maybe Whitney, you can go first.

Success and challenges working with CSR Teams in a large organization

You don't [00:09:30] know what you don't know, right?

So it takes time just to reach out to someone and maybe be a bit vulnerable with an idea, right?

And I think what's really worked for us is that we've learned along the way and we've built trust within different groups, right?

And with that collaboration, we've created some really meaningful [00:10:00] marketing material and really meaningful connections with people through some of the events that we processed through just asking questions and asking if the corporate responsibility team or other groups within communications are open to partnering together.

Amanda, I guess, what would your feeling be on working with the CSR teams and [00:10:30] I guess everybody else, any other teams and departments in Cummins?

Well, to be fair, I can tend to be a little bit of a bull in a China shop.

And I'm very fortunate that Cummins has a culture gives a lot of grace and understanding to kind of help me understand how the organization works.

And the fact of the matter is a lot of these organizations, especially in [00:11:00] a big company, are somewhat siloed naturally.

That big company are somewhat siloed naturally.

They have different reporting lines, they have different smart role alignments.

There's a lot of things that maybe don't help enable some organic collaboration, but we've been in a really good scenario that Whitney's helped me navigate a lot of her relationships as somebody who's been with the company longer as well, so that way we could make things happen.

We [00:11:30] did an amazing period poverty campaign with the Society of Women Engineers , and that wouldn't have happened without those types of relationships and that type of collaboration, and we actually created a squat project team to work through some of those growing pains of how do we partner together, how can we be most effective and achieve the greatest good?

I'm sure those relationships aren't built overnight.

Do you start with [00:12:00] small projects and then grow from there?

Or is it something that you want to have them right at the beginning of a major initiative?

How to build relationships when working on social impact projects?

So I would say that you got to eat the elephant one ear at a time, and for a company like Cummins, a corporate responsibility is huge, it's fast, it's super mature.

They're very evolved in the work that they do and very well established.

So for us being smaller teams, it was more approachable and it made [00:12:30] more sense to come to them when we see opportunities for proper alignment and opportunities to use their expertise.

The Period Poverty Initiative was one of those.

Whitney and her team just executed some really, really thoughtful welcome boxes for interns and hires from the National Society of Black Engineers as well.

When we are trying to be thoughtful in having at top of mind when and how [00:13:00] and where can we partner with them, it takes intentionality, but it's on us to have that intentionality.

They're doing great work all the time and they do reach out to us if they see opportunities, but they're not heavily involved in our work.

So I think it's our responsibility and it should be our responsibility to engage with them and pull on them when we feel like we have the opportunity to do so. [00:13:30]

Whitney, I don't know if you feel differently about that, but they're out there solving world hunger and we're not.

Something to add to that, Amanda is, the work that they're doing is so powerful, that as a marketing professional, I think CR is really open to our team building additional [00:14:00] awareness of their work and also using that as a tool to attract talent.

So, I mean, not only are we learning and some of the work is already done for us in terms of existing partnerships with organizations or charities, but we have an additional megaphone that we can build awareness and amplify the good that we're doing within our organization and the good that's coming out of CR

[00:14:30] Well, and in our other projects work too, I feel like we're really well-received by them.

They are welcoming with open arms anytime we pull on them for an opportunity that we feel like corporate responsibility brings value to the table for one of our strategies.

Another point to that is by leveraging your team members in different groups, and I believe Amanda made this point earlier, [00:15:00] you're really taking advantage of their expertise, which creates space for our marketing team to do what we do best while leaning on the CR team to focus on what they do best.

At the end of the day, we ended up having a really great product to bring to our candidates and share the impact that we're making.

I can honestly say some of the things that I am most proud of since working at Cummins are the things where we thought to partner with corporate social responsibility.

[00:15:30]  It's the type of stuff that gives you meaning and meaningfulness into the work that you're doing, because jobs are life changing, but it's nice to have jobs be life-changing and do other good things as well.

I love it. I'm super inspired just hearing it too.

I was taking notes and I heard ... I think there's two ways you can look [00:16:00] at it.

One is just, how do we work cross-functionally, and some of the things I heard you say is sometimes we have to be bold, you have to ask questions, how to navigate and form those relationships that are outside of your own kind of silo.

Be really intentional about it, leverage other folks and other team's expertise.

Then really cool, Whitney, you mentioned that both of you teaming up with CR is yet another way to kind of continue to not only leverage their expertise, but also [00:16:30] promote another avenue to promote their work.

So really showing that kind of win-win that you described as well. So thank you both.

You had mentioned a little earlier a couple of specific ways and how some of these collaborations have actually manifested themselves.

I was hoping that you might be able to actually ... we could get into some of these tangible ways and you could walk me through those examples.

The first was the Period Poverty Campaign, Amanda, that you mentioned earlier. Would you be [00:17:00] able to tell us more about that?

What that looked like, some of the outcomes you saw and if it was relevant also to collaborating with CR?

Period Poverty Campaign

Yeah. I think with that initiative, it really started with we just had a problem to solve.

We wanted to engage more authentically and more deeply with some intended demographics.

The instance at hand was the Society of Women Engineers.

We wanted to engage more with women. [00:17:30] We wanted to connect with them in a way that was more meaningful at that event as well. Whitney's team was a lot of the inspiration.

We had just come through a new employer value proposition launch, and that was really thoughtful and insightful because one of the things that came out was, well, a lot of companies have the same values.

Those words, everybody's got something around environmentalism or sustainability, around diversity or around caring [00:18:00] or excellence.

Not all companies live those values and overwhelmingly the research and focus groups showed that Cummins does.

They're not words on a wall.

They are something that you would experience.

They are something that you feel as a part of our culture. We wanted to bring that feeling to people who just interacted with us.

Not just employees, but how could we give that same experience and that [00:18:30] same understanding of our values and who we are as a culture to people who are coming by our recruiting booth and who are interacting with us.

We're a very well kept secret in terms of, I think, sometimes our culture and how authentic it truly is inside as an employee, and we wanted to share some of that with people outside because it is our secret sauce. It's what makes us who we are.

In addition, we had been looking at [00:19:00] potentially creative ways to minimize spend on swag, plastic things have our logo on it that are a hundred percent what everybody does.

It's totally standard, but does a water bottle with our logo on it or [inaudible 00:19:16] chapstick with our logo on it really tell you something about our brand?

So we really wanted to design these moments and we wanted it to be very core and centric to women. So [00:19:30] we started doing a little research and we started learning more about how many young women are impacted by period poverty.

In the Anaheim area, which is where the conference was, the previous year roughly 88,000 young women missed school when they were on their periods because they didn't have access to pads, to tampons, to menstruation cups, to period panties.

At Cummins, we believe empowering your potential and that also means powering the potential of the next generation of female engineers and how are we going to power their potential if they can't even make it to the class?

So we decided to go kind of big kind, kind of bold, got rid of all of our plastic junk, did some benchmarking and decided, "You know what? Everybody who comes to our booth, we're going to talk to them about [00:20:30] periods.

We're going to talk to them about marginalized populations of girls, how it impacts their future and their potential, and we're going to sponsor a period for one month for every person who comes to our booth."

More than that, we also wanted people to be inspired and to inspire others.

So when people came to our booth, we asked them to write a note of inspiration to those girls, the same ones.

Corporate responsibility is who brought Girls, [00:21:00] Inc to the table.

So we want people to be inspired as well and to inspire someone else.

So through that program, we had great measurable outcomes, but that program wouldn't have happened if it hadn't been for Whitney's team as well and the relationships she has with employer brand and marketing, as well as corporate responsibility.

Good ideas are one thing, seeing them through and getting [00:21:30] them executed so you can actually make a difference is something else, especially in a very large matrixed environment.

Her team is who was able to make that vision come to life and to get the support and sponsorship so that way we could move forward with it.

We chose not to brand the notes of inspiration.

We just wanted them to feel very pure and I'd be lying if I didn't admit the fact that I kind of enjoyed seeing some of my middle- [00:22:00] aged male colleagues out there like the Oprah of periods.

Talking to candidates about "You're sponsoring a girl's period for one month! And you're sponsoring a girl's period for one month!"

And it created a really authentic experience.

There were young women who were tearing up in our booth talking about their own experiences with homelessness as a teenager, particularly when they were younger and after [00:22:30] the housing crisis.

There were people telling us, international students, sharing with us just really appalling, horrific stories that they had experienced, or their sisters had experienced.

And what a huge barrier this is to someone being able to actually achieve their potential.

It was really moving. It was really inspiring.

And what we did is we really just led with our values.

Caring is [00:23:00] a core value at Cummins, and we wanted people to feel that and to be a part of it.

We actually had people coming to our booth who maybe weren't familiar with our company.

We had recruiters from other organizations signing their kids up in our candidate system because they felt like our organization was a place they would want their child to work at.

I think that's really meaningful because to me, it means they felt our values.

They experienced it. [00:23:30]

And not only that we had record foot traffic.

We saw a 213% increase in female engagement at that event.

We no longer were putting plastic swag with our logo on there out there, to be thrown away before someone leaves the conference or things of that nature.

We sponsored approximately 900 periods that day and sent 900 notes of inspiration to girls week as well. [00:24:00]

And we actually surveyed the people who came to our booth afterwards and we asked them, "How did it impact your understanding of our values?

How did it change the perception of us as a potential employer for you?

Would you want us to keep doing things like this in the future, or would you prefer if we go with just a traditional non-for-profit?"

Overwhelmingly the individuals that responded said, "No, do more. Do this. Keep doing this. [00:24:30] And it makes your company more attractive to me.

And it helps me understand and feel your values of caring, your values of diversity and inclusion and your values of sustainability."

It was a really special moment for us, and it was a really great proof of concept that we can carry with us to other partnerships, to other events, to other relationships in very meaningful ways.

And it's so inspiring and the outcomes you described [00:25:00] too are not only great. I mean, yes, making a really unique and longterm and inspiring social impact.

But also being able to increase brand engagement and awareness, be able to recruit some of the talent that you're looking to recruit, really stand out.

I mean, all of those things are just unbelievable. So thank you for sharing.

And Whitney, I know we had talked and [00:25:30] one of you had referenced earlier the recent intern boxes that you did as well.

I believe that's what you had called it at Cummins, but I would love to dive a little bit into that too.

What that looked like, what that project was, maybe some of the outcomes and some of the ways that you also worked with your CR counterparts.

Intern Boxes

So going into our 2021 intern season for the summer, we knew that nearly 70% of our interns that we're bringing [00:26:00] on board with us were going to be virtual and remote.

We knew that there was a need for us to make an impression, reinforce the positivity in their decision in coming on board with Cummins for their summer internship program and experience.

So, our employer brand team focused on collecting and curating a box of giveaways and gifts that were meaningful and intentional. [00:26:30]

We were able to purchase and procure some items that were local to the state of Indiana, where our global headquarters is located.

And we procured those items through black-owned and women-owned businesses here locally in the state.

The second piece that I think was really meaningful and is going to be received really well, is our partnership with corporate responsibility and identifying [00:27:00] a organization, a not-for-profit that we could donate to in honor of our interns this year.

We were able to provide a donation to Rights For Girls.

Rights For Girls is an organization that focuses on supporting predominantly black and brown girls in mainstreaming conversations around justice reform, [00:27:30] gendered violence.

And making that a priority in supporting the girls that come in through the organization.

And another piece that was really meaningful as well as, we show up as a brand that is inclusive and equitable.

And we talk about our culture in different virtual event settings. Specifically [00:28:00] the National Society of Black Engineers, Society of Women Engineers from this previous fall program, where we were recruiting talent.

So, I think these welcome boxes really reinforce our culture through those conversations with our people, when candidates were going through the recruiting process.

So that they can feel and see the same value showing up in the simple welcome box that they receive at their home.

Sounds like a really great [00:28:30] program.

Coming at it from a non-CSR professional role.

So what advice would you give CSR practitioners, leaders, professionals who've got inspired by the examples that you've [00:29:00] provided today?

And how would they go about starting or infusing that social impact, or starting these CSR programs into their businesses and working with people like yourself?

How CSRs could work with other business teams when starting or scaling their goodness programs

I just would really encourage individuals to think big and think multi-dimensionally.

So, if you're looking at working with an organization that's going to help support mock interviews or resume writing workshops, why [00:29:30] not get those people real jobs in your own company?

Think bigger and make the information accessible and transparent for partners.

That has probably been one of the areas because so many CSR orgs are so big, or they're their own arms.

They're doing good work all the time, and they're just moving along with their projects.

But it's because they've made themselves accessible to us, that we've been able [00:30:00] to reach out, that we can learn, that we know who the right points of contact are.

Otherwise, we might just be operating blissfully unaware of how we could be doing more good in different ways.

We have great opportunities to do greater as an organization.

And I think if I were to sit in the corporate social responsibility position, or if I was in say maybe a younger or smaller organization, just getting that started, I would think very multi- [00:30:30] dimensionally.

I'd be thinking about my supplier diversity.

I'd be thinking about my employer brand proposition.

I'd be thinking about what types of organizations are we partnering with.

And how can we maximize those partnerships to do the greatest good across our organization, in ways that maybe are less than traditional as well?

And Whitney, from your perspective, if a CSR... Let's say you are in a [00:31:00] smaller or a younger organization, what kind of advice would you provide a new CSR pro to work with you and maybe your team?

I'd recommend it to really focus on the stakeholders that could be involved in a project.

Oftentimes CR professionals are creating that charter for that scope particular scope of work. But thinking outside the box in terms of who could benefit from this work.

[00:31:30]  And I would say communications professionals.

Not just the ones that you may partner with on a regular basis to promote for your use and your channels, but also widening that idea of bringing in communications professionals, marketing professionals to help amplify the work that you're doing.

[00:32:00] I think even though we are a technology company that's really focused on engineering and we have many different forms of customers, I think customers, investors, they come to expect companies the size of Cummins to be doing this work.

And I think with that expectation comes a lot of responsibility and also value that they can see [00:32:30] in the organization, aside from purchasing that product.

They're also forming perception around that particular company in the work that they're doing outside of that technology that they're providing.

Same thing that can be said for our work.

It may be a corporate responsibility project or not-for-profit relationship that's been sparked, but our candidates come to expect [00:33:00] that out of an employer such as Cummins.

And we can use that as a way to attract and really entice candidates to feel and understand our culture.

One thing that Whitney and I talked about and explored is don't let your product brand limit what you do in those relationships.

We see it a little differently from our perspective from employer brand and talent acquisition, because [00:33:30] the thing that we are selling is the authenticity of our culture and our values.

So while period poverty or rights for girls might not feel aligned to the products we sell, it is aligned to the heart of our culture and to not negate that because that's really, really important, and it's an intangible that's really, really an art and a science when it comes to the type of work that our employer brand team does.

[00:34:00] But I think corporate responsibility, the work that they do, it's proof of the culture and it demonstrates the actual actions and the decisions being made in an organization. So it's really powerful storytelling.

That's amazing.

One thing I keep thinking about too, and you two might not be the ones that know this data point given your roles, but I'm curious, we talked a little bit about how these collaborations [00:34:30] not only increase social impact, which is a great thing, and really help from retention or attracting top talent perspective.

I'm curious, do you have any insights about how some of these collaborations and the way that your culture is really focused on doing good and making social impact has from an employee perspective? Are our employees engaging more?

Are they supportive and happy within the culture as well? [00:35:00]

My gut feeling is it's just going to be a yes, and we move onto the next question.

But I was thinking about that a lot as you guys were talking.

How Cummins social impact programs affect employee engagement

In our organization, we can actually log or corporate responsibility, hours as well.

So it is about doing good, but it's also about recognizing that employees are engaged in doing good.

Part of the inspiration around period poverty was actually a localized event in one of our facilities where the organization, rather than [00:35:30] giving away, local leadership decided to make toiletry packs and dignity packs for people in a local homeless shelter.

And we see lots of great engagement from our employees every single year.

I believe the Care Initiative, we have over 200 employee volunteers just in localized communities that are helping to support that work.

Even just probably in the next few weeks, Whitney and I will be with [00:36:00] both local public school districts and police departments about how can they be mindful of DE&I work and being equitable with the community and how they recruit talent into their own workforces.

So while at Cummins, doing good has definitely always been a pillar, and caring is a core value for us as an organization, our company also recognizes and rewards the type of [00:36:30] people that we have in our ranks and the fact that they are doing good, because we want more of that.

Whitney, I don't know if you have any insights around that.

Well, I think our corporate responsibility work also has a role to play in reinforcing our employer value proposition to our internal employee base.

I believe it can almost be seen as a retention tool, reinforcing that I decided to come and start [00:37:00] and begin my career journey with Cummins and seeing stories like this and efforts by our employees, by the teams that are responsible for this work, it is definitely a retention tool.

Great. Well, thank you very much for joining us.

We just have one more question for both of you.

Do you have any advice, whether it's CSR professionals or not, to any of our listeners, [00:37:30] in your opinion, how do we go about embedding social impact into every aspect of our business?

How to embed social impact into every aspect of the business

I think it's okay to demand more of your company, of how your money is spent, how decisions are made for vendors, and of your own work and your own strategies.

We could have easily just went with a fluffy non-for-profit in anything, but we wanted [00:38:00] to do something that was intersectional, that was thoughtful, that felt like it really resonated with the intended audience as well as our values as an employer.

And we went to bat for it.

Not everything is well-received by everyone, and sometimes there are people who just don't get it, but I think it's about pushing those boundaries yourself as an individual in what you have stand up control over, [00:38:30] as well as I think it's appropriate and it's timely to ask more of your company, whether it's through your ERGs, through your own leadership, through your supplier decisions.

I think it's the right time and if we haven't been doing it already, we should be asking more of our company, more of our CEOs, and reach out and make those connections [00:39:00] and those partnerships internally to help you move some of those asks across the finish line and to celebrate the wins too.

And I also believe that everything that has transpired in the last year, now's the perfect time to take some of those risks and to ask those questions and to spark [00:39:30] a new change in how we think about our work.

I believe that in terms of our work between Amanda and I with talent acquisition and candidate attraction, candidates have an eye for what's authentic right now with what companies are putting out there externally.

They can see pretty quickly what is considered woke washy [00:40:00] and that's something that we're mindful of, but as professionals in this space, now's the time to really go out and push boundaries.

And that's exactly what my advice would be to someone who has an interest, who knows what is the right thing to do, and who wants to see an additional spark for change.

Question of the day

How has your CSR team or teams worked cross-functionally with other teams or departments in your organization?

And what strategies and tips would you have? 

Connect with Amanda Reid on Linkedin

Connect with Whitney Wilber on Linkedin

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Home > honors > Honors Theses > 445

Mahurin Honors College Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects

Corporate social responsibility: a case study on carlsberg.

Marketing and Sales

Anne Sofie Brusendorff , Western Kentucky University Follow

Document Type

In today’s business environment corporate social responsibility (CSR) and sustainability are extremely influential in a firm’s competitiveness. A literature review will provide an analysis of past cases illustrating the importance of CSR, considering both positive and negative impacts CSR strategy can have on business success. Furthermore, important definitions and terminology critical to understanding CSR will be highlighted. This paper explores the evolution of CSR and provides a general overview of the effects CSR can have on a company’s reputation. The way a company can effectively utilize a CSR-strategy as a competitive advantage is also examined, along with scholarly views both supporting and opposing CSR.

Finally, this paper includes an in-depth analysis on a Danish brewery, Carlsberg, and answers the following question: ”How does Carlsberg market its CSR strategy to consumers, and does the CSR strategy contribute to the company’s success as well as provide long-term competitive advantages for Carlsberg?” The findings of this paper suggest that CSR can be a competitive advantage and contribute to a business’ overall success.

Advisor(s) or Committee Chair

Dr. Patricia Todd

• Disciplines

Business Administration, Management, and Operations | International Business

Recommended Citation

Brusendorff, Anne Sofie, "Corporate Social Responsibility: A Case Study on Carlsberg" (2014). Mahurin Honors College Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects. Paper 445. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/stu_hon_theses/445

Since June 24, 2014

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Home > ETD > Doctoral > 5934

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Corporate social responsibility programs in supply chain strategies.

Craig A. Standridge , Liberty University Follow

Graduate School of Business

Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)

Philip W. Shields

corporate social responsibility, sustainability, stewardship, shareholder

Disciplines

Recommended citation.

Standridge, Craig A., "Corporate Social Responsibility Programs in Supply Chain Strategies" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5934. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5934

This study focused on United States-based small and medium-sized (SME) manufacturing companies and their decision-making strategies regarding corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs within their supply chain strategies. As CSR gains global acceptance, those stakeholder interests seek validation and compete for outcomes that affect the triple bottom line of people, the planet, and profits. Strategic managers must skillfully balance the implementation of CSR programs with available resources, all without a guaranteed increase in competitiveness or organizational excellence. CSR is often perceived as more suitable for larger organizations with ample resources. At the same time, SMEs grapple with the fiduciary challenges of adopting CSR programs into their organizations. This study used a qualitative, flexible multiple-case research design to gather data through interviews with six purposefully chosen C-suite-level manufacturing business leaders. The research followed an inductive, theory-driven approach to data collection and analysis. The findings suggest that SME manufacturers often rely on supply chain partners to meet their production needs. However, apart from fulfilling contractual obligations, they are not involved in how these partners conduct business. They typically see CSR as burdensome and, when mandated by government, another cost of doing business. Outside mandates or driven by customer demands, they show little interest in CSR and question its purpose when conducting business based on an ethical stewardship model.

Since August 29, 2024

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• Ten years of CSR in India: What do organisations need today?

Effective CSR is a marathon, not a sprint — a long-term commitment that needs to be communicated effectively.

• KPMG India Blog Home
• Jignesh Thakkar , Partner |

Co-authored with Mohammed Gulrez, Technical Director ESG, Indira Basu, Assistant Manager, ESG-Social (Advisory) and Sidhi Baweja, Manager, ESG-Social (Advisory)

Introduction: CSR – the ‘what’ and the ‘why’

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been a key part of business strategy for most prominent organisations across sectors globally for over the past couple of decades. Despite not having a universally accepted definition, the notion of CSR is generally considered to embody the ethos of responsible business ethics and a duty towards society at large. While the term CSR has traditionally lent itself to the philanthropic work of corporations, its scope and definition have evolved to include concepts like triple bottom line, corporate citizenship, shared value, corporate sustainability, business responsibility, etc.

The Indian context

Ten years ago – in 2014 – India became the first country to mandate a statutory CSR obligation 1  for companies meeting certain parameters. The mandate for corporations to engage in social welfare endeavours was codified into law with the passage of the 2014 and 2021 amendments to the Companies Act of 2013. Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013 mandates every company having a net worth of INR500 crore or more, or turnover of INR1,000 crore or more, or net profit of INR5 crore or more—during the immediately preceding financial year—to spend at least two percent of the average net profits over the immediately preceding three financial years towards CSR, as per the CSR policy of the company.

Looking back at India’s CSR journey in terms of funding, Indian companies spent about USD1.43 billion on CSR in 2014, and by 2019 their spending had grown 85 per cent to USD2.67 billion. 2

Convergence of CSR and ESG

Much like its ‘successor’ ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance), CSR strategies underscore the need for businesses to achieve self-reliance and have a sturdy backbone of suitable structures and risk management frameworks that will stand the test of time. This approach ensures that companies can mitigate business headwinds and ascertain the seamless continuity of both their primary business activities, as well as CSR endeavours.

Over the past decade, the concepts of CSR and ESG have converged, as the scope of CSR initiatives and expenditure has broadened across large firms to include more environmental initiatives (which have been front and centre of ESG activities, given the scale of the global climate crisis). 23 per cent of Indian corporates prioritised environmental projects in their CSR fund allocation during in the financial year 2022-23, according to the India CSR Outlook Report 2023. 3

This convergence and ‘complementarity’ of the two concepts – of CSR and ESG (often interchangeable with the term sustainability) – was acknowledged in the Guidelines on Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability for Central Public Sector Enterprises 4  issued by the Government of India’s Department of Public Enterprise (DPE) in December 2012 (and which came into effect in April 2013). The new guidelines, which have replaced two existing separate guidelines on CSR and sustainable development – issued in 2010 and 2011 respectively – mention the following: “Since corporate social responsibility and sustainability are so closely entwined, it can be said that corporate social responsibility and sustainability is a company’s commitment to its stakeholders to conduct business in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner that is transparent and ethical.” Moreover, “the present guidelines of DPE are also intended to reinforce the complementarity of CSR and sustainability and to advise the CPSEs not to overlook the larger objective of sustainable development in the conduct of business and in pursuit of CSR agenda.”

Thus, ESG embeds the traditional notion of CSR into the business operations of an organisation in an all-pervasive manner, and with greater chances of profitability. For companies to align their CSR endeavours with their core business goals, leaders must identify key focus areas, partner with suitable stakeholders, and accurately measure and report the impact of their CSR activities.

How strategic communication can propel successful CSR outcomes

Today, what has assumed centerstage in CSR impact is strategic communications. At the crux of this approach is the alignment of CSR goals, strategies, and activities with a business’s (broader) ESG framework. This is because CSR activities overlap primarily with the ‘S’ – the (S)ocial aspect of ESG. Among the initiatives that CSR encompasses are activities related to access to primary healthcare, education for all, skills training, capacity-building, etc. – all of which fall under the social banner of ESG.

Since ESG is the mainstay today for businesses vis-à-vis CSR – in that ESG is a measurable outcome for investors and other stakeholders to gauge the health and viability of a business – ESG metrics and outcomes of a business must therefore be published as a separate report by a business/company. To briefly illustrate one of the tangible impacts of embedding ESG goals in business, Harvard Business School professor George Serafeim writes in a Harvard Business Review article published in 2020: “an ESG focus can help management reduce capital costs and improve the firm’s valuation … as more investors look to put money into companies with stronger ESG performance, larger pools of capital will be available to those companies.” In the same article, Serafeim also notes: “positive action and transparency on ESG matters can help companies protect their valuations as more global regulators and governments mandate ESG disclosures.” 5

Thus, given the importance of businesses to have an ESG focus, it is imperative for a company’s CSR activities to be incorporated into the messaging of the company’s overall ESG framework, strategy, and its published report. This is to ensure that the business’s CSR activities find recognition. Even if an organisation is doing exceptional work in CSR, its impact – particularly in the eyes of key stakeholders – may remain negligible if not communicated suitably. In this vein, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA), in its May 2023 newsletter, 6  flagged the limited impact of CSR activities despite a boost in such spending in recent years, and urged India Inc to adopt a long-term strategy “to yield productive results”. As per the MCA, while CSR spending stood at INR26,210 crore in FY21, having grown 80 per cent from FY16, the impact of the CSR funds ‘was not widely felt’; there was a need to ‘enhance the visibility as well as impact’ of these invested funds. 7

Against this backdrop, one of the aims of CSR communications is for companies to gain the buy-in of various stakeholders while building brand equity through reputation-enhancement, which is also the very crux of ESG. But first, let us look at three broad communications strategies that shape CSR outcomes:

• Differentiation: Effective CSR communications ensure companies stand out from competitors by highlighting their ESG commitments and activities in a unique manner. This approach enhances brand image and builds the perception of the company as responsible and ethical.
• Stakeholder engagement: For meaningful and long-term CSR impact, organisations must engage and build relationships with all key stakeholders: customers, employees, investors, and the community at large. Ultimately, relationship-building lies at the core of any meaningful long-term engagement.
• Reputation management and customer loyalty: Transparency and honesty in communicating CSR initiatives is essential to a favourable reputation and brand image, as it builds trust which leads to higher employee retention and stronger stakeholder partnerships. This leads to customer loyalty thanks to positive reviews through word of mouth.

In a nutshell, for a company to suitably showcase its CSR initiatives, deploying appropriate communication channels – tailored to target audiences – is necessary. Social media, websites, and annual reports are various means through which companies can effectively reach stakeholders. It is also important to understand specific CSR concerns of various stakeholders, for a company’s initiatives to resonate with each target group. This will further aid trust and fortify brand equity. In this context, it is crucial to note the role and value of a robust CSR strategy for a company’s brand value and sustainability outcomes.

To realise their CSR goals, it is critical for companies to forge partnerships across stakeholder groups such as the government, private organisations with an interest in the target region/identified social cause, etc. Then, the company spokesperson / designated CSR team should adopt communication tools that will resonate with the various stakeholders across levels, such as by communicating in their language, ensuring transparency in intent and information-sharing, regular reporting of the impact, etc.

All these methods help build a strong case for strategic communications in CSR and works two ways – internally and externally.

• Internal communication includes collaterals such as quarterly presentations to the CSR committee/management; development of knowledge products for communication (CSR Annual report); development of internal communications and training materials among others. Other examples of internal communications include monthly reporting on district-wise and partner-wise metrics from the MIS to monitor project progress and support the development of knowledge products along with their dissemination to the various stakeholder groups.
• External communication through collaterals catered to the stakeholders/audience – such as policy briefs for government, partnership notes for multi-laterals, etc. – can help amplify the impact of a cause by the respective organisation and position the firm as a thought leader in a particular domain.  Not only do effective external communications strategies enhance partnerships, but they also enable cross-learning across development organisations, which ensures a win-win situation for all stakeholders. This results in replication and scalability of successful interventions across geographies. In external communications, it becomes critical to identify and prioritise different categories of stakeholders, establishing their varied communication needs, and accordingly tailoring the messaging/narratives.

These strategic methods and tools pave the way for successful CSR outcomes that:

a) transcend mandated strategies. b) are aligned with defined business goals. c) account for a holistic approach to community/local needs (where the business has a presence) and help in identifying the best suited external partners on-ground for implementation purposes.

Thus, CSR is not a feel-good exercise any longer, but this shift in mind-set is yet to become ubiquitous. The writing on the wall is clear: effective CSR is a marathon, not a sprint — a long-term commitment that needs to be communicated effectively.

What businesses need for successful CSR outcomes

With the overarching framework delineated above, let us address more specific strategies to elevate a business’s CSR goals and subsequent results:

1. Aligning with company values and business goals: CSR today is not just a secondary or peripheral approach to business outcomes and brand value. Top CSR initiatives ensure they align with the respective company’s overall business strategy and fundamental values.

2. Drawing on insights from key business stakeholders: Caring about your employees, clients and community is what will be a key differentiator in helping businesses stand out, especially in ensuring effective CSR outcomes. Therefore

• it is in a company’s best interest to routinely check in with key clientele — in an easy-to-access survey format, or conversations — on the social/environmental issues that matter to them, and identify the areas they need the most support in.
• regular check-ins with employees via a survey / poll and dialogue — on community causes they are interested in ­­— can go a long way. An organisation’s CSR success (and indeed, all other effective business outcomes) depends a lot on ensuring employees are on board with the company’s ethos and interests. In essence, a company must ensure internal buy-in. So, leaders at all levels within the organisation must understand their team members’ value systems and interests through regular dialogue. Further, involving one’s employees in CSR strategies will also ensure that these activities are more meaningful and personal, and not reduced to ‘tokenism’.
• an organisation’s CSR strategy must align with community / local needs. Thus, the organisation must engage in meaningful discussions with stakeholders from the local communities to understand the issues that concern them, and mutually etch out solutions.

3.   External partnerships:  Effective CSR doesn’t always require one to reinvent the wheel. Seeking out external partner organisations (across industry / grassroots communities / philanthropic networks, etc.) will help an organisation in the following ways:

• Strengthen business partnerships and community-building.
• Make valuable social impact by bolstering existing initiatives that often run dry, instead of starting something new.

In the same vein, top global consulting firms like KPMG in India are driving change in the social sector (across education, WASH, environment, etc.) through innovation and design thinking service offerings across impact design, impact measurement, social Return on Investment, and impact/project management, etc.

[1] Corporate Social Responsibility is not a Zero-Sum Game, Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth (US), Kirk Kardashian (9 January 2023) [2] Corporate Social Responsibility is not a Zero-Sum Game, Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth (US), Kirk Kardashian (9 January 2023) [3] India CSR Outlook Report, CSR Box (2023) [4] Guidelines on Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability for Central Public Sector Enterprises, Department of Public Enterprises, Govt. of India (2014) [5] Social-Impact Efforts That Create Real Value, Harvard Business Review, George Serafeim (2020) [6] Monthly Newsletter – Volume 66, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Govt. of India (2023) [7] Monthly Newsletter – Volume 66, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Govt. of India (2023)

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• Published: 27 August 2024

Charting sustainable urban development through a systematic review of SDG11 research

• Abdulaziz I. Almulhim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5384-7219 1 ,
• Ayyoob Sharifi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8983-8613 2 ,
• Yusuf A. Aina   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0763-9865 3 ,
• Shakil Ahmad 4 ,
• Luca Mora 5 , 6 ,
• Walter Leal Filho 7 , 8 &
• Ismaila Rimi Abubakar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7994-2302 9  

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• Environmental studies
• Social policy

The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11 underscores the imperative of creating inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities and communities by 2030. Here we employ bibliometric techniques to assess the evolving landscape of SDG11 research. Using a comprehensive dataset of over 21,000 scholarly publications, we investigate publication trends, thematic focus areas, authorship patterns, keyword co-occurrences and citation networks related to SDG11 research. The results reveal a consistent increase in research output, reflecting the growing global interest in urban sustainability studies. We identify influential authors, organizations and countries shaping the research landscape, highlighting existing global collaborative networks and emerging research hubs. Core thematic areas emphasize critical topics and interdisciplinary connections. Citation networks underscore the impacts of disseminating research outputs, including seminal works. This study offers insights for policymakers, academics and practitioners to align their collective efforts toward sustainable, inclusive and climate-resilient urban development. Moreover, it advances SDG11 by noting opportunities for further research, knowledge dissemination and international collaboration.

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The growing interest in sustainable urban development is driven by challenges posed by urbanization, socioeconomic activities and environmental issues 1 . Urban areas contribute 80% of the world’s gross domestic product 2 , but also account for around 75% of global resource consumption, 65% of energy use and over 70% of carbon emissions 3 . The ecological footprint of urban environments, which measures the resources required to sustain socioeconomic activities, has been increasing 4 , 5 , and the global urban extent is projected to double by 2030 6 . Similarly, the global urban population is projected to reach 68% by 2050 7 , which could surpass the capacity of most urban areas 8 . Africa and Asia will host most of the future urban populations despite housing and infrastructure inadequacies 7 . Rapid urbanization, poverty and climate change (CC) further intensify the vulnerability of urban dwellers 9 .

Sustainable urban development aims to balance economic production, environmental protection and social inclusiveness. It emerged as a response to the critique of modernist views that prioritized physical appearance and order in cities over context, equity and inclusion 6 . Due to the limited progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were established in 2015 to ensure that no country is left behind in achieving sustainable development by 2030 10 . Many of the SDGs are closely related to urban settings, where sustainability challenges are complex and interwoven 11 . SDG11 specifically focuses on urban challenges and aims to make ‘cities and human settlements inclusive, safe resilient and sustainable’ by reducing the negative effects of urban development while improving socioeconomic development 10 .

The importance of SDG11 stems from the principles of inclusive, safe and resilient city. An inclusive city is characterized by the idea that all individuals, irrespective of their economic status, gender, race, ethnicity or religion, have the ability and empowerment to actively engage in the social, economic and political opportunities available within urban environments 6 . It seeks to address environmental racism and promote inclusive and fair urban development through social justice and equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. In such a city, everyone is afforded equal access and participation in the diverse aspects that cities provide. On the other hand, a safe city refers to a city that possesses the capacity to provide protection and security against potential dangers, harm or risks, while a resilient city denotes a city’s ability to recover and restore its fundamental functions and structures following natural disasters and crises caused by human activities 6 , 8 . SDG11 is significant because it aims to ensure that cities develop sustainably.

However, SDG11 has been criticized for its limited emphasis on urban inequalities, decentralization and funding for local authorities 6 . Other challenges include localizing the universal indicators 12 , governance issues 13 , data accessibility and comparability 14 and smart city development 12 , 15 . Nevertheless, SDG11 serves as a platform for directing and monitoring urban development, fostering socioeconomic development and ensuring equity, inclusion and environmental protection 16 . Therefore, it is crucial to assess the literature on progress toward SDG11 targets 10 , especially at the halfway point to the target year, to inform interventions necessary for their achievement 17 .

While SDG11 has attracted significant global research attention 18 , comprehensive reviews of SDG11 literature are limited. Existing studies have primarily focused on assessing all the SDGs 19 , 20 , which obscures specific challenges and makes it difficult to track progress or design targeted interventions for individual goals. Recent work has highlighted the insufficient achievement of the SDGs and the need for transformative governance and participatory approaches 21 . Other studies have underscored the gap between research and policies, the underutilization of cities as pivotal arenas for achieving SDGs 22 and the lack of indicators to measure progress toward implementing SDGs 15 . Some studies have assessed SDGs’ implementation in specific region 17 , their impacts on addressing risks 23 and crises 1 , and their implications for health and well-being 24 , environmental research 25 and private sector involvement 26 . Most of the SDG research emanates from developed countries, showing a gap in the coverage of developing countries 27 . The few SDG11 studies in the Global South have narrow focus. While one paper investigated the impact of SDG11 on forest-based livelihoods 28 , another study researched the challenges of SDG11 implementation using a single-country experience 6 . Therefore, an in-depth and broad review of SDG11 literature is necessary to bridge this knowledge gap and identify key challenges and opportunities as well as potential pathways for achieving the targets set in SDG11.

Therefore, this research aims to assess the SDG11 research trends and themes using a bibliometric technique. It is the first global and comprehensive scientometric study on the SDG11 domain. By focusing on research conducted since the formulation of the SDGs, the study addresses the following research questions: (1) what are the global trends in SDG11 research? (2) How has the thematic focus of SDG11 research evolved over time? (3) What are the challenges and priority areas for SDG11 research? The contributions of the study to theory and practice are to:

Identify significant thematic areas and trends in SDG11 research since the promulgation of the SDGs, which can inform researchers, policymakers and practitioners about the current state of knowledge within the field and highlight priority areas for SDG11 research.

Map research clusters, knowledge sharing and collaboration patterns, thereby providing insights into the dynamics of research networks and facilitating the formulation of strategies to foster research excellence, interdisciplinary and international collaborations and the effective allocating of research resources.

Underscore the knowledge gaps, emerging topics and challenges within SDG11 research, offering evidence-based insights to align urban development initiatives with SDG11 research frontiers, enhance the efficacy of interventions and contribute to the development of inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities.

SDG11 research trends

Research on SDG11 has significantly grown in terms of annual publications and citations since 2016, indicating a rising interest in this field (Fig. 1 ). The number of publications has increased by 1.3-fold, and this upward trajectory is expected to continue. Notable emerging research areas include the institutionalization of SDGs within local and global settings 18 and the impact of smart cities on advancing the SDGs 12 , 15 . Previously, studies on the epistemology and challenges of urban population growth were prevalent 29 . However, SDG11 research has now evolved into multidisciplinary fields, driven by heightened attention to urban challenges such as CC, urbanization and population growth.

A total of 21,153 articles were published, receiving 229,182 citations. The number of publications rose from 9,238 in period 1 (2016–2019) to 11,915 in period 2 (2020–2022).

Source data

The increasing trend in SDG11 publications can be attributed to several factors, including the desire to improve institutional rankings, a supportive research environment, investments and endowments, faculty promotion requirements and advancements in information and communication technology. There are also socioeconomic factors, such as increasing urbanization rates and gross domestic product, urban expansion and transformation, a deeper understanding of urban dynamics and challenges. Additionally, the policy environments in different countries can influence academic interests and research in urban studies, shaping research priorities and collaborations. Other contributing factors include research challenges faced by low-income countries and research support by governments, the private sector, international development agencies and scholars, all focusing on sustainable urban development.

SDG11 research is further propelled by recent international summits and collaborations that highlight the urgency of protecting the ecosystem and ensuring human safety 1 . Since 2015, CC issues have received greater attention due to key factors. The adoption of the Paris Agreement raised awareness and urgency for action on CC, resulting in a greater focus on related issues in various sectors, including urban planning and policy 13 . Scientific consensus on CC impacts and the role of human activities has also strengthened over the years, with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessments emphasizing the significance of cities in addressing CC 23 . As a result, CC considerations are increasingly integrated into research, policy and planning processes.

Urban planning and development strategies have prioritized climate mitigation and adaptation measures, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, enhancing resilience to extreme weather events and incorporating green infrastructure. The focus on CC has accelerated the transition toward low-carbon and resilient cities, with efforts directed toward sustainable transportation, energy-efficient buildings, green spaces and climate-responsive infrastructure 6 . Collaboration and international cooperation are essential in addressing climate change, with cities and countries sharing best practices, knowledge and resources to develop and implement climate action plans 24 . Initiatives such as the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group facilitate knowledge exchange and collective action among cities 30 . The increased attention to CC signifies a shift toward more sustainable and resilient urban development, emphasizing the need for proactive measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to climate risks and promote equitable and sustainable urban environments.

Thematic focus of SDG11 research

There is an imbalance in the attention given to research themes within SDG11 as revealed by co-occurrence map (Supplementary Fig. 1 ). The dominant themes are affordable housing (SDG11.1), urban transport (SDG11.2), policy and governance (SDG11.3) and access to public spaces (SDG11.7). Housing affordability issues have consistently remained a focal point in SDG11 research, with urban studies, policy development and community-driven efforts for finding solutions to these complex challenges 30 , 31 . These issues were highlighted in Habitat I (Vancouver, 1976), which emphasized the importance of shifting governance and planning paradigms to develop policies and strategies to address rapid urbanization challenges, including shelter shortages and urban inequalities, and promote affordable housing options 30 , 32 . Habitat I has laid the foundation for subsequent global efforts and policy frameworks, such as Habitat II (Istanbul, 1996) and the New Urban Agenda, which continue to prioritize housing as a pivotal component of sustainable urban development. The persistent focus on affordable housing shows that cities still face many challenges in providing adequate housing for all 30 .

Urban policy and governance are other significant terms, indicating scholarly focus on strategies for promoting inclusive and sustainable urban development, enhancing participatory, integrated and sustainable urban planning and management. However, many cities lack the capacity to address urban inequalities, provide adequate housing 31 , public spaces and other urban services, which disproportionately affect women and racial minorities 30 . Moreover, urban redevelopment practices that lead to gentrification exacerbate existing inequalities 32 . Governance-based approaches seek to improve collaboration between public agencies and civil society to prioritize the implementation of urban planning strategies that enhance livability standards while addressing challenges such as CC and sustainability 30 .

Urban transport, which is related to SDG11.2 aiming to ensure safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, has emerged as a key research theme. Important issues related to mobility, transportation and urban form include increased automobile dependence amid growing urbanization and suburbanization, challenges faced by public transit systems, growing awareness of environmental concerns, shift toward sustainable and multimodal transportation, transit-oriented development, integration of technology in transportation systems and the relationship between transportation and urban densification, compact development, CC adaptation and resilience, equity and social inclusion, and shifts in policy and governance approaches 1 , 6 , 11 . This theme also emphasizes the importance of walkability, public transit infrastructure and their role in enhancing transportation accessibility and influencing mode choice 33 . The transportation cluster also suggests that improving accessibility through urban form and built environment interventions can impact the travel behavior of urban residents and offer cobenefits for human health and environmental sustainability 24 . Incorporating such cobenefits in SDG11.2 could provide more incentives for access to safe efficient, equitable and sustainable transport infrastructure and systems in cities.

The implications of urbanization and land-use changes for sustainability, resilience and CC adaptation and mitigation in cities are also major themes. SDG11.6 aims to reduce the environmental impacts of cities, particularly in relation to air pollution and waste. The literature suggests that regulating urban growth 6 , controlling land-use changes, conserving biodiversity 27 and promoting green infrastructure are essential for achieving this target 34 . These actions, when implemented within integrated planning frameworks, can also reduce vulnerability, enhance resilience and contribute to progress in CC adaptation and mitigation, as emphasized in SDG11.5 (ref. 6 ). Such integrated frameworks should recognize the interconnections between various urban systems, including water, food, energy, waste and transportation, to promote sustainable and resilient urban development 35 . Cities are adopting strategies to reduce their carbon footprint, enhance energy efficiency and prepare for climate risks.

Smart cities and innovation enabled by information and communication technologies have increasingly been utilized to tackle urban development challenges and facilitate innovative and transformative urban governance mechanisms that contribute to the SDGs 15 . The rapid development and integration of digital technologies, such as the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, big data analytics and sensor networks, have opened new possibilities for improving urban services, infrastructure and quality of life 33 . Smart cities leverage these technologies to enhance efficiency, connectivity and sustainability. The interest in smart cities stems from the recognition that technology can play a transformative role in addressing urban challenges, improving quality of life, promoting sustainability and fostering economic growth 12 , 36 . However, it is important to ensure that smart city initiatives are inclusive, equitable and responsive to the needs and aspirations of all residents.

Comparing the co-occurrence maps of period 1 and period 2 reveals limited changes in key thematic areas, despite the emergence of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic during period 2 (Fig. 2 ). The key thematic areas in period 2, including urban governance and policy, transportation, urban sustainability and resilience, and urbanization and urban growth, remain consistent with period 1, indicating the continued relevance of these topics in research, albeit with potential expansions. However, a closer analysis of the clusters reveals that COVID-19 has emerged as a new area of SDG11 research in period 2, as attention has shifted toward adapting to the pandemic’s detrimental effects on cities. The pandemic has triggered paradigm shifts in various SDG11 domains, including public health, remote work, digitalization, vulnerabilities, inequalities, resilience, sustainability, urban spaces, proximity-based planning approaches such as the 15-minute city and global cooperation 9 . These shifts have influenced work, health, social equity, environmental stewardship 2 and urban planning, shaping innovative approaches and priorities in the postpandemic world. Urban inequality terms, such as slums and informality, inadequate housing and poverty, are brought to the forefront by the pandemic. Controlling the pandemic and addressing the citizen demand in slums and informal settlements has received significant attention 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 . Mobility restrictions and lockdowns to curb the virus’s transmission have presented challenges for service accessibility, particularly in disadvantaged neighborhoods where vulnerable groups reside. Lastly, the connection between sustainability and resilience has strengthened in the postpandemic period. The pandemic has offered new insights into the susceptibility of cities to various stressors and highlighted the inseparable connections between urban resilience and SDG11 (ref. 28 ).

a , b , The key thematic areas in period 1 (2016–2019) ( a ) are urban governance and policy (red), transportation (blue), urban sustainability and resilience (green), and urbanization and urban growth (yellow), while period 2 (2020–2022) ( b ) primarily focuses on urban governance and policies (red), urban studies (red), transportation (blue) and urbanization (green), particularly after the pandemic.

However, three SDG11 targets are not well-represented in both periods. One such target is SDG11.4, which aims to enhance efforts in preserving and conserving natural heritage, vital for improving urban sustainability 41 . Another target, SDG11.a, which focuses on strengthening urban–rural linkages, is also not adequately reflected in Fig. 2 . The intrinsic connection between cities and their surrounding rural areas necessitates the incorporation and strengthening of ties between urban and rural regions to achieve SDG11 (ref. 6 ). Gaps related to rural–urban linkages include limited understanding of interdependencies, inadequate infrastructure and services in rural areas, weak governance and coordination mechanisms, and social and cultural disconnect 13 . These gaps hinder the development of integrated strategies, contribute to economic disparities, limit access to services, impact agricultural productivity and food security, and create environmental and social challenges. Lastly, there is a lack of research on SDG11.c, which aims to support least-developed nations in developing safe and resilient urban areas, which is not surprising as these countries are often underrepresented in urban studies research 30 .

Major contributors to SDG11 research

Various countries, institutions, journals and authors have contributed to SDG11 research between 2016 and 2022. China leads in terms of the number of publications and citations generated, followed by the United States and the United Kingdom (Supplementary Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 1 ). Among the top 20 productive countries, 14 are from the Global North countries, with South Africa and Brazil as the sole representative of Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 3 and Supplementary Table 2 ). Increasing research collaboration among the top countries (Fig. 3 ), research infrastructure and facilities, manpower and financial support significantly contribute to their high SDG11 research output.

China followed by the United States and the United Kingdom dominates SDG11 research collaborations. There are significant connections among European, North American and Asian institutions, while Africa is less connected with Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean. Freq, frequently.

A co-citation analysis (Supplementary Table 3 ) reveals that Chinese institutions, such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences, have the highest number of articles and citation counts, followed by University College London and the University of Melbourne. The leading affiliations have changed over time, highlighting the strengthening of research institutes and the correlation between research collaboration and societal impacts (Supplementary Table 4 ). In terms of influential journals for SDG11 research, ‘land’ followed by ‘cities and land use’ policy tops the list (Supplementary Tables 5 and 6 ), with a growing interest in fields related to smart and sustainable cities, transport policies, regional planning and environmentally conscious building practices (Supplementary Fig. 4 ). These journals also address multiple issues related to environmental concerns, technological advancements, economic benefits, quality of life, justice and public awareness, driving the development of smart and sustainable cities.

The 15 most published authors in both periods focused on urbanization and urban growth, and the implementation, challenges and achievements of SDG11 (Supplementary Fig 5 ). This indicates an increased recognition of the SDG11 targets and their implementation over time, with the contributions of these authors significantly increasing from 2002 to 2016. Supplementary Table 7 shows that Chinese authors dominate the SDG11 publications, which correlates with China’s lead in institutions, affiliations and collaborations related to SDG11 research. The most cited SDG11 articles are revealed in Supplementary Table 8 , while the prominent authors that influenced SDG11 research are reported in Supplementary Table 9 . The top cited papers by SDG11 research are presented in Supplementary Tables 10 and 11 .

Key facts from the bibliometric analysis

The research on SDG11 has gained significant prominence across various fields, including urban studies, environmental sciences, geography, transportation and urban governance (Supplementary Table 12 ). The increasing environmental concerns, urbanization and global economic growth have spurred academic interest in SDG11 research from disciplines such as human geography, transportation, forestry, CC and sustainability science (Supplementary Table 13 ). Key thematic areas within SDG11 research encompass urban governance, affordable housing, transportation, urban sustainability and resilience, smart cities, urbanization and urban growth, which align closely with SDG11 targets 18 , 20 , 42 , 43 . However, research focus on SDG11 has remained relatively stable, with limited attention given to urban inequalities, safeguarding cultural and natural heritage 41 and specific impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on urban sustainability.

This study reveals a notable increase in the total SDG11 research output from 2016 to 2022, reflecting the growing emphasis on SDG11 research in recent years compared with earlier periods. China emerges as the leaders in terms of research outputs, citations, authors, institutions and collaborations, closely followed by the United States and the United Kingdom. These three countries contribute 47.71% of SDG11 research productivity within this period, which is higher than 31% reported in a previous similar study 28 .

The dominance of Global North countries in the top 20 countries with the highest number of publications and citations related to SDG11 research is expected given their strong institutional capacity, research funding, highly ranked universities and collaborations. China’s surge in publications on SDG11 can be attributed to rapid urbanization, economic growth, government support and active international collaborations 2 , 11 . Generally, the landscape of research on SDG11 demonstrates an Anglo–American hegemony, which may reinforce power asymmetries and have significant implications for sustainability and resilience 30 . It is concerning that while projections indicate that 90% of future urban population growth will occur in cities of the Global South, particularly Africa and Asia, there is limited research on urban development challenges in these regions 7 .

The debate about the politics of knowledge production in SDG11 research often revolves around the controls of knowledge production processes. Large, well-funded institutions in developed countries tend to dominate research agendas, focusing on themes and solutions relevant to their own contexts, overlooking the unique needs and challenges of the Global South, which perpetuate existing inequalities and privileging certain types of knowledge. Also, knowledge production involves recognizing and integrating diverse ways of knowing. While Western scientific paradigms have traditionally dominated SDG11 research, there is an increasing recognition of the importance of indigenous and non-Western knowledge systems. Integrating these diverse epistemologies enriches understanding and leads to more effective and culturally relevant solutions.

Additionally, SDG11 research is inherently interdisciplinary, involving fields such as urban planning, sociology, environmental science and public policy. However, interdisciplinary collaboration can be challenging due to differing terminologies, methodologies and research priorities. Navigating these differences becomes crucial in the politics of knowledge production to create cohesive and comprehensive research outputs. Finally, bridging the gap between knowledge production and its implementation faces political, economic and social barriers. Researchers and practitioners are increasingly considering how knowledge on urban sustainability can effectively influence policymaking and practice in diverse urban contexts. Mobilizing knowledge to address these barriers becomes a key consideration in the politics of knowledge production.

Challenges to achieving SDG11

There are several challenges to achieving SDG11 targets, including inadequate provision of affordable housing 31 , essential services 24 , green spaces 2 , 34 , efficient transportation 33 and conservation of cultural and natural assets 25 . Rapid urbanization 1 , 7 , CC impacts 44 , insufficient investment in public infrastructure 30 , poor governance 13 and widening livelihood, land and resources inequalities 43 further exacerbate these challenges. For example, rapid urbanization puts immense pressure on housing, infrastructure, services and resources, making it challenging to effectively manage urban growth and ensure sustainable urban development 11 . Inadequate urban planning and land-use policies lead to inefficient land utilization, urban sprawl and inadequate provision of basic services 7 , 21 . The existence of slums and informal settlements where a large portion of the urban dwellers live in substandard housing conditions without tenure security 14 and limited access to electricity, water, sanitation, education, healthcare and employment opportunities 23 , 37 , and marginalized and vulnerable populations facing social exclusion, add to the complexity.

Moreover, competing priorities and trade-offs, lack of integration among various urban sectors and agencies 35 , inadequate human, technical and material resources at local government levels 45 , and insufficient local indicators and methods for implementation and monitoring 46 often hamper the implementation of SDG11 targets. Additionally, limited awareness of SDG-related challenges for policy formulation and implementation hinders context-depended decision-making and targeted interventions 21 , 27 . Addressing social inequalities, ensuring inclusivity in urban development and synergy among multiple fields, including social, technical, environmental, policy and management are crucial for achieving SDG11 (refs. 14 , 26 , 46 ). A valuable lesson can be learned from the success of the framework for assessing the implementation of SDG11 targets at the local level in Japan 42 .

Conclusions

This study aims to enhance our understanding of urban sustainability and provide insights for future research, policies and actions needed to achieve SDG11 targets. By conducting a comprehensive bibliometric assessment of over 21,000 publications from 2016 to 2022, it significantly contributes to the existing body of knowledge, highlighting trends, thematic areas and knowledge gaps related to SDG11 research across countries, institutions, authors and journals. SDG11 research has evolved into a multidisciplinary field, encompassing diverse themes, such as transportation, housing, urban sustainability, smart cities, urbanization and urban governance and policy. However, there is a need to address the gaps in research on urban safety and inclusion, which are critical dimensions often overlooked in favor of environmental and economic aspects of sustainability. This imbalance in research thematic areas risks perpetuation of already existing disparities within SDG11 research and its goals.

China, the United States and the United Kingdom emerge as the top contributors to SDG11 research and collaboration. To foster more SDG11 research in low-income economies, it is essential to provide increased funding support, capacity building and training for scholars, promote collaboration and knowledge exchange, and improve research infrastructure and data collection. Despite global challenges such as armed conflicts, CC and the COVID-19 pandemic, progress toward achieving the SDGs will become apparent by 2030. However, there are still opportunities for further research, knowledge dissemination and international collaboration toward developing safe, sustainable and inclusive urban development. The following are priority areas for SDG11 research:

Urban policy and governance: reforms should focus on providing equitable access to basic services such as water, sanitation, electricity, healthcare and education; upgrading and formalizing informal settlements; and improving living conditions of over one billion people residing in slums 37 . Participatory governance, community engagement and empowerment can enhance social inclusion by considering the voices and needs of marginalized groups 13 , 23 . Urban policy should also prioritize preserving historic and natural resources, protecting vulnerable areas and implementing sustainable urban design principles 47 . Future studies can help understand the dynamics, challenges and opportunities and monitor progress toward SDG11 targets 15 .

Localizing SDG11 targets: spatial planning and land-use strategies should consider the needs of diverse urban populations, promote inclusive zoning and engage local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes, crucial for fostering ownership, empowerment and social cohesion, leading to more sustainable and inclusive urban development 3 . However, enhancing the capacity for localizing SDG11 targets requires building the knowledge and skills of local governments, policymakers and practitioners. Capacity-building initiatives, such as training programs, workshops and knowledge exchange, can promote interdisciplinary understanding and sharing of best practices.

Concerted and collaborative efforts: the international community, academics, policymakers and stakeholders can work together to create inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable communities. Collaborative efforts can facilitate a comprehensive understanding of urban challenges and potential solutions by integrating diverse perspectives, data and methodologies. Disseminating research findings contributes to evidence-based policy development and informed decision-making, enabling the learning of lessons and replication of successful interventions.

Breaking down silos: integrated and cross-sectoral approaches help narrow the gaps between sectors, local governments, policymakers and stakeholders, leveraging local resources and capacities while fostering communication, knowledge sharing and collaboration 31 . Cross-sectoral working groups, joint planning processes and integrated policy frameworks promote holistic and coordinated decision-making among various sectors, including urban planning, housing, transportation, health, education, environment and social welfare 47 .

Digitalization and smart city development: maximizing the benefits of digitalization and smart city solutions requires addressing challenges such as bridging digital divides and ensuring data access, privacy and security. Prioritizing citizen-centric approaches and public accessibility to technology 36 are essential for leveraging expertise and resources 15 . Interoperability, scalability, data-driven decision-making and inclusivity contribute to evidence-based planning and equitable access to smart city technologies 12 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 .

This study comprehensively assessed SDG11 research, emphasizing significant thematic areas, trends, challenges and suggestions for prioritizing SDG11, including effective urban policy and governance, localizing SDG11 targets, concerted and collaborative efforts, and digitalization and smart city development. To broaden the scope of SDG11 research, future bibliometric reviews should encompass non-Web of Science databases and gray literature, including publications from government and nongovernmental agencies. Despite its limitations, this study’s findings provide valuable references for further research on SDG11.

The present study utilized a bibliometric technique to analyze academic publication on SDG11, tracing the research trend, the evolving key themes and identifying contributing authors, institutions and countries. Bibliometrics is a quantitative technique that allows for the analysis of trends in scholarly publications, such as research articles, conference papers and books, and visualizes scholarly publication patterns 52 . This technique is instrumental in analyzing extensive literature sets by relying on statistical observations and text-mining capabilities, which qualitative review methods such as systematic reviews cannot accomplish 53 . Additionally, it presents a scientific landscape of authors, countries, organizations and collaborations that contribute to worldwide scientific literature.

Bibliometric analysis requires interpretation, introducing an element of subjectivity 54 . Therefore, a sensemaking approach was adopted to transition from describing the bibliometric results to interpreting them. Sensemaking helps derive insightful information from bibliometric analysis and can be integrated into systematic literature reviews 55 , 56 . It applies to various international indexing, abstracting and citation databases, such as Scopus, Web of Science, Dimensions, PubMed and Education Resources Information Center, which cover journals, books, reviews and conference proceedings from around the world and different regions. For this study, Web of Science was chosen as the database to obtain bibliographic data due to its wide range of topics in various fields of study such as natural sciences, health sciences, engineering, social science, computer science and materials sciences. It is one of the world’s largest peer-reviewed scientific literature databases, with 87 million indexed items.

Specialized bibliometrics software were employed, including VOSviewer (version 1.6.19) 52 , Biblioshiny (version 4.1.3) 55 and BibExcel (version 2017) 57 . VOSviewer, known for its user-friendly interface, was used to understand the thematic focus and evolution of research on SDG11. It generates networks of nodes and links, with node size representing the frequency of the studied item, and link width indicating the strength of connections between items. Clusters of intricately linked nodes are shown in distinct colors. The thematic focus was examined for two periods: period 1 (2016–2019) and period 2 (2020–2022), considering the time since the SDGs were introduced to the time of data collection in this study. Another reason for this categorization is that evidence shows that the pandemic has significantly affected progress toward achieving SDGs 58 . VOSviewer allows for various types of analysis, including term co-occurrence, co-citation, citation and bibliographic coupling 53 . A term co-occurrence analysis was used in this study to highlight key thematic areas. To ensure accuracy and avoid separate counting of synonyms, a thesaurus file was developed and added to the software before the analysis. A summary of the data, including the number of authors and journals, used in the analysis is presented in Table 1 and will be further explained below.

A comprehensive search query was formulated to retrieve relevant data on SDG11, and it was executed in the title, abstract and keywords fields (TS) in Web of Science on 5 July 2023. The initial query shown the following box resulted in a total of 334,224 documents. Co-citation analysis was employed to identify the most influential journals contributing to SDG11 research. Two works are considered co-cited when they are both mentioned in the works cited section of a subsequent publication 59 (Zhao, 2006).

TS = ((‘city’ OR ‘cities’ OR ‘human settlement*’ OR ‘urban’ OR ‘metropoli*’ OR ‘town*’ OR ‘municipal*’ OR ‘peri-urban*’ OR ‘urban-rural’ OR ‘rural-urban’) AND (‘gentrification’ OR ‘congestion’ OR ‘transport*’ OR ‘housing’ OR ‘slum*’ OR ‘informal settlement*’ OR ‘sendai framework’ OR ‘Disaster Risk Reduction’ OR ‘disaster’ OR ‘DRR’ OR ‘smart cit*’ OR ‘resilient building*’ OR ‘sustainable building*’ OR ‘building design’ OR ‘buildings design’ OR ‘urbani?ation’ OR ‘zero energy’ OR ‘zero-energy’ OR ‘basic service*’ OR ‘governance’ OR ‘citizen participation’ OR ‘collaborative planning’ OR ‘participatory planning’ OR ‘inclusiveness’ OR ‘cultural heritage’ OR ‘natural heritage’ OR ‘UNESCO’ OR ‘ecological footprint’ OR ‘environmental footprint’ OR ‘waste’ OR ‘pollution’ OR ‘pollutant*’ OR ‘waste water’ OR wastewater* OR waste-water* OR ‘recycling’ OR ‘circular economy’ OR ‘air quality’ OR ‘green space’ OR ‘green spaces’ OR ‘nature inclusive’ OR ‘nature inclusive building’ OR ‘nature inclusive buildings’ OR ‘resilient’ OR ‘resilience’ OR ‘healthy cit*’ OR ‘sustainable’ OR ‘sustainability’ OR ‘green’ OR ‘nature*’ OR ‘Green infrastructure*’ OR ‘nature-based solution*’ OR ‘nature based solution*’ OR ‘child*’ OR ‘wom?n’ OR ‘elderl*’ OR ‘disabl*’ OR ‘disabilit*’ OR ‘disabled’)) AND PY = (2016–2022) NOT PY = (2023)

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework was used to report document search and filtration process. The PRISMA framework is designed to help scholars transparently report why their review study is conducted, what activities are performed and what discoveries are made, ideal for both systematic reviews and bibliometric studies 60 . PRISMA presents the four stages of the above query’s overall searching and filtration process (Fig. 4 ). The identification stage yielded 334,224 records, which were then screened to select only article-type documents ( n  = 277,165). Subsequently, documents were further screened based on language, selecting only English documents ( n  = 257,374). In the final stage, documents were screened based on specific categories closely related to cities and SDG11, resulting in a selection of six major categories: urban studies, environmental studies, geography, urban and regional planning, architecture, transportation and physical geography ( n  = 21,168). Finally, 15 duplicated documents were removed, resulting in a final dataset of 21,153 documents.

A four-phase flow diagram of the data extraction and filtration process of SDG11 literature, adapted from Priyadarshini 57 . WoS, Web of Science.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available as supplementary information. The steps for curating the data from the Web of Science have been provided in the text. If there is a further need, data are available on figshare at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26360125 . Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

A.I.A. acknowledges Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University in Dammam, Saudi Arabia, for their support in conducting this study. A.S. acknowledges the support of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI grant number 22K04493. We appreciate Hiroshima University for supporting the open-access publication of this article.

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A.I.A.: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, investigation and project administration. A.S.: methodology, software, formal analysis, visualization and writing—original draft. Y.A.A.: conceptualization, writing—original draft, investigation and validation. S.A.: methodology, software, formal analysis, visualization and data curation. L.M.: writing—review and editing, and investigation. W.L.F.: writing—review and editing, and investigation. I.R.A.: writing—review and editing, investigation, supervision, validation and resources.

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Almulhim, A.I., Sharifi, A., Aina, Y.A. et al. Charting sustainable urban development through a systematic review of SDG11 research. Nat Cities (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44284-024-00117-6

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• Modulare Uplinks mit 1 G, 10 G, 25 G, 40 G oder 10 G mGig
• Stacking-fähig bis 480 Gbit/s

C9300-xx H/UX/UXM/UN SKUs

Catalyst 9300 UPOE+

Optimiert für konvergenten kabelgebundenen und Wireless-Zugriff, mit 24 oder 48 Ports

• 1 G oder 10 G Multigigabit mit 90 W Cisco UPOE+

C9300-xx T/P/U/S SKUs

Catalyst 9300 1 G

Grundlage für Intent-based Networking mit 24 x oder 48 x Ports mit 1 G für Daten

• PoE+, Cisco UPOE und SFP-Glasfaser
• Modulare Uplinks mit 1 G, 10 G, 25 G, 40 G oder Multigigabit

C9300L and C9300LM SKUs

Catalyst 9300L/LM 1 G

Ideal für den Einsatz in geschäftskritischen Zweigstellen mit wenig Platz

• 24 x oder 48 x Ports mit 1 G für Daten, PoE+ und Multigigabit
• Feste Uplinks mit 4 x 1 G, 4 x 10 G, 2 x 40 G
• Stacking-fähig bis 320 Gbit/s

Sehen Sie sich den Catalyst 9300X-Switch genauer an.

Testen Sie unsere Cloud-Monitoring-Lösung für Ihr Switching-Netzwerk

So einfach und flexibel kann ortsunabhängiges Arbeiten sein – entdecken Sie unsere Cloud-Monitoring-Lösung für Cisco Catalyst Switches auf dem Cisco Meraki Dashboard.

Unterstützung während des gesamten Lebenszyklus

Netzwerkdienste

Beschleunigen Sie die Transformation Ihres Netzwerks

Erhalten Sie wertvolle Expertise und Einblicke für den Aufbau eines sicheren und flexiblen Netzwerks – vom Design bis hin zu Implementierung und Optimierung.

Supportservices

Ziehen Sie größeren Nutzen aus Ihren IT-Investitionen

Sorgen Sie mit fachkundiger Unterstützung dafür, dass Ihre IT und Ihr Unternehmen auf Kurs bleiben. Dazu bieten wir Ihnen rund um die Uhr Zugriff auf fundiertes technisches Wissen, umfassende globale Erfahrungen und digitale Intelligence, um Störungen und Risiken zu reduzieren.

Nehmen Sie an einer Demo teil

Vereinfachen Sie die Netzwerkverwaltung mit den Automatisierungs-, Assurance- und Analysefunktionen der Cisco Catalyst Center-Plattform. Nehmen Sie an einer Demo teil, um mehr darüber zu erfahren.