computers development essay

Computers: The History of Invention and Development Essay

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The invention of the computer in 1948 is often regarded as the beginning of the digital revolution. It is hard to disagree that computers have indeed penetrated into the lives of people have changed them once and for all. Computer technologies have affected every single sphere of human activities starting from entertainment and ending with work and education. They facilitate the work of any enterprise, they are of great assistance for scientists in laboratories, they make it possible to diagnose diseases much faster, they control the work of ATMs, and help the banks to function properly. The first computers occupied almost the whole room and were very slow in processing data and performance in general. The modern world witnesses the development of computer technologies daily with computers turning into tiny machines and working unbelievably smoothly. A computer is now trusted as a best friend and advisor. It is treated as a reliable machine able to process and store a large amount of data and help out in any situation. “The storage, retrieval, and use of information are more important than ever” since “(w)e are in the midst of a profound change, going from hardcopy storage to online storage of the collected knowledge of the human race” (Dave, 2007), which is why the computers are of great assistance to us. However, to become a successful person, it is not enough to simply have a computer at home. It is often the case that people use computers merely to play games without knowing about the wide range of activities they may engage a person in. One has to know more about computers and use all their capabilities for one’s own benefit. Knowing the capabilities of one’s computer can help in the work and educational process, as well as it can save time and money. In this essay, you will find out reasons as to why it is important to know your computer; and how much time and money you will save by using all the capabilities of your computer.

What should be mentioned above all is that knowing one’s computer perfectly gives an opportunity of using it for the most various purposes. It depends on what exactly a person needs a computer for, in other words, whether it is needed for studying, for work, or for entertainment. Using a computer for work or education purposes involves much more than is required for playing computer games. These days most of the students are permitted to submit only typed essays, research papers, and other works, which makes mastering the computer vital. “Information technologies have played a vital role in higher education for decades” (McArthur & Lewis, n.d.); they contributed and still continue to contribute to students’ gaining knowledge from outside sources by means of using the World Wide Web where information is easily accessible and available for everyone. To have access to this information one has to know how to use a computer and to develop certain skills for this. These skills should include, first of all, using a Web browser. “In 1995, Microsoft invented a competing Web browser called Microsoft Internet Explorer” (Walter, n.d.), but there exist other browsers the choice of which depends on the user. Moreover, knowing different search engines (for instance, Google, Yahoo, etc,) is required; the user should also be able to process, analyze, and group similar sources by means of extracting the most relevant information. At this, the user is supposed to know that not all Internet sources should be trusted, especially when the information is gathered for a research paper. Trusting the information presented in ad banners is unwise for their main purpose is attracting the users’ attention. They may contain false or obsolete data misleading the user. Utilizing the information obtained from the Internet for scholarly works, one should remember about plagiarism or responsibility for copying somebody else’s works. Students who use such information should cite it properly and refer to the works of other scholars rather than simply stealing their ideas. Plagiarism is punishable and may result in dropping out of school or college. This testifies to the fact that using a computer for studies demands the acquisition of certain computer programs and practice in working with them, which would give a perfect idea on how to search and process the information needed for completion of different assignments.

What’s more, knowing a computer for work is no less important. Mastering certain computer programs depend on the type of work. Any prestigious work demands a definite level of computer skills from the basic to the advanced one. The work of a company involves sometimes more than using standard computer programs; the software is usually designed specifically for the company depending on the business’s application. This means that acquisition of a special program may be needed and a new worker will have to complete computer courses and gain knowledge on a particular program. Nevertheless, the knowledge of basic computer programs is crucial for getting a job one desires. Since the work of most companies is computerized, one will need to deal with a computer anyways and the skills obtained while playing computer games will not suffice. A person seeking a job should be a confident user of basic computer programs, such as Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft Office Excel, Internet Explorer (or other browsers), etc. A confident user is also supposed to know what to do with the computer when some malfunctions arise. Of course, each company has system administrators who deal with computer defects but minor problems are usually born by the users themselves. Apart from knowing the computer, a person should be aware of the policy of using it in the office. For instance, some companies prohibit using office computers for personal purposes, especially when it comes to downloading software and installing it on the computer without notifying the system administrator. This may be connected either with the fact that incorrectly installed software may harm the system of the computer in general or, if the software has been downloaded from the Internet, it may contain spyware which makes the information from your computer accessible for other users. This can hardly be beneficial for the company dealing with economic, political, governmental, or any other kind of issues. Therefore, knowing a computer is necessary for getting a prestigious job and ensuring proper and safe performance of the company one is working for.

And finally, using all the capabilities of a computer can save time and money. Firstly, a personal computer has a number of tools which facilitate people’s life. Special software, for instance, Microsoft Money, makes it possible to plan the budget, to discover faults in the plan, and correct it easily without having to rewrite it from the beginning; the program itself can manage financial information provided by the user and balance checkbooks in addition. Such computer tools as word processors enable the users to make corrections at any stage of the work; moreover by means of them, one may change the size of letters and overall design of the work to give it a better look. Mapping programs can also be useful; by means of a computer one may install such a program (GPS) into the car; the program then will take care about planning the route avoiding traffic jams and choosing the shortest ways. Secondly, electronic mail allows keeping in touch with people not only in your country but abroad. It is cheaper and much faster than writing letters or communicating over the telephone when the connection is often of low quality and the conversation is constantly interrupted. Most telephone companies are aimed at getting profits from people’s communication with their friends and relatives whereas electronic mail is almost free; all that one needs to do is to pay a monthly fee to the Internet Service Provider. Eventually, computer users have an opportunity to do shopping without leaving the apartment; the choice of the products one may want to buy is practically unlimited and the user can always find recommendations from those people who already purchased the product. A personal computer can also help to save money due to its being multifunctional. Knowing much about the capabilities of the computer, one may start using it as a TV set watching favorite programs online, and as a Playstation playing the same games on the personal computer. Not only can a user watch favorite TV shows by means of his/her computer, but can download them at various torrent sites for free. Using a PC to send faxes through online fax services saves money for one does not have to buy a fax machine and to use an additional telephone line; it also saves paper and ink which one would have to buy otherwise.

Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, it can be stated that knowing a computer is important for it can make people’s life much easier. Firstly, computers are helpful in getting an education since by means of them the students can find any possible information necessary for writing research papers and other kinds of written assignments. To do this, a student needs to know how to search the Internet and to process the information he/she can find there. Secondly, knowing a computer raises one’s chances of getting a good job because most of the companies look for employees with a sufficient level of computer skills. When working for a company one should also remember about its policy regarding the use of computer for personal purposes and be able to cope with minor problems arising in the course of work with the computer. Finally, a computer allows saving time and money. It saves the users’ time due to utilizing such tools as word processors, budget planning, and mapping programs which facilitate the users’ life. The computer can also save money serving as a TV, fax, and Playstation giving access to TV shows, online fax services, and allowing playing video games without buying special devices for this.

McArthur, D., Lewis, W.M., ND. Web.

Moursund, D. (2007). A College Student’s Guide to Computers in Education . Web.

Walter, R. ND. The Secret Guide to Computers . Web.

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History of computers: A brief timeline

The history of computers began with primitive designs in the early 19th century and went on to change the world during the 20th century.

• 2000-present day

Additional resources

The history of computers goes back over 200 years. At first theorized by mathematicians and entrepreneurs, during the 19th century mechanical calculating machines were designed and built to solve the increasingly complex number-crunching challenges. The advancement of technology enabled ever more-complex computers by the early 20th century, and computers became larger and more powerful.

Today, computers are almost unrecognizable from designs of the 19th century, such as Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine — or even from the huge computers of the 20th century that occupied whole rooms, such as the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.  

Here's a brief history of computers, from their primitive number-crunching origins to the powerful modern-day machines that surf the Internet, run games and stream multimedia. 

19th century

1801: Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French merchant and inventor invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.

1821: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of numbers. Funded by the British government, the project, called the "Difference Engine" fails due to the lack of technology at the time, according to the University of Minnesota . 

1848: Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician and the daughter of poet Lord Byron, writes the world's first computer program. According to Anna Siffert, a professor of theoretical mathematics at the University of Münster in Germany, Lovelace writes the first program while translating a paper on Babbage's Analytical Engine from French into English. "She also provides her own comments on the text. Her annotations, simply called "notes," turn out to be three times as long as the actual transcript," Siffert wrote in an article for The Max Planck Society . "Lovelace also adds a step-by-step description for computation of Bernoulli numbers with Babbage's machine — basically an algorithm — which, in effect, makes her the world's first computer programmer." Bernoulli numbers are a sequence of rational numbers often used in computation.

1853: Swedish inventor Per Georg Scheutz and his son Edvard design the world's first printing calculator. The machine is significant for being the first to "compute tabular differences and print the results," according to Uta C. Merzbach's book, " Georg Scheutz and the First Printing Calculator " (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977).

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch-card system to help calculate the 1890 U.S. Census. The machine,  saves the government several years of calculations, and the U.S. taxpayer approximately $5 million, according to Columbia University  Hollerith later establishes a company that will eventually become International Business Machines Corporation ( IBM ).

Early 20th century

1931: At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Vannevar Bush invents and builds the Differential Analyzer, the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analog computer, according to Stanford University . 

1936: Alan Turing , a British scientist and mathematician, presents the principle of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine, in a paper called "On Computable Numbers…" according to Chris Bernhardt's book " Turing's Vision " (The MIT Press, 2017). Turing machines are capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer is based on his ideas. Turing is later involved in the development of the Turing-Welchman Bombe, an electro-mechanical device designed to decipher Nazi codes during World War II, according to the UK's National Museum of Computing . 

1937: John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, submits a grant proposal to build the first electric-only computer, without using gears, cams, belts or shafts.

1939: David Packard and Bill Hewlett found the Hewlett Packard Company in Palo Alto, California. The pair decide the name of their new company by the toss of a coin, and Hewlett-Packard's first headquarters are in Packard's garage, according to MIT . 

1941: German inventor and engineer Konrad Zuse completes his Z3 machine, the world's earliest digital computer, according to Gerard O'Regan's book " A Brief History of Computing " (Springer, 2021). The machine was destroyed during a bombing raid on Berlin during World War II. Zuse fled the German capital after the defeat of Nazi Germany and later released the world's first commercial digital computer, the Z4, in 1950, according to O'Regan. 

1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design the first digital electronic computer in the U.S., called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory, and is capable of performing one operation every 15 seconds, according to the book " Birthing the Computer " (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016)

1945: Two professors at the University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, design and build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The machine is the first "automatic, general-purpose, electronic, decimal, digital computer," according to Edwin D. Reilly's book "Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology" (Greenwood Press, 2003). 

1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications.

1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the transistor . They discover how to make an electric switch with solid materials and without the need for a vacuum.

1949: A team at the University of Cambridge develops the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), "the first practical stored-program computer," according to O'Regan. "EDSAC ran its first program in May 1949 when it calculated a table of squares and a list of prime numbers ," O'Regan wrote. In November 1949, scientists with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), now called CSIRO, build Australia's first digital computer called the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Automatic Computer (CSIRAC). CSIRAC is the first digital computer in the world to play music, according to O'Regan.

Late 20th century

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language according to the National Museum of American History . Hopper is later dubbed the "First Lady of Software" in her posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom citation. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.

1954: John Backus and his team of programmers at IBM publish a paper describing their newly created FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, according to MIT .

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby is later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work.

1968: Douglas Engelbart reveals a prototype of the modern computer at the Fall Joint Computer Conference, San Francisco. His presentation, called "A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect" includes a live demonstration of his computer, including a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI), according to the Doug Engelbart Institute . This marks the development of the computer from a specialized machine for academics to a technology that is more accessible to the general public.

1969: Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and a group of other developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that made "large-scale networking of diverse computing systems — and the internet — practical," according to Bell Labs .. The team behind UNIX continued to develop the operating system using the C programming language, which they also optimized. 

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip.

1971: A team of IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart invents the "floppy disk," enabling data to be shared among different computers.

1972: Ralph Baer, a German-American engineer, releases Magnavox Odyssey, the world's first home game console, in September 1972 , according to the Computer Museum of America . Months later, entrepreneur Nolan Bushnell and engineer Al Alcorn with Atari release Pong, the world's first commercially successful video game. 

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for connecting multiple computers and other hardware.

1977: The Commodore Personal Electronic Transactor (PET), is released onto the home computer market, featuring an MOS Technology 8-bit 6502 microprocessor, which controls the screen, keyboard and cassette player. The PET is especially successful in the education market, according to O'Regan.

1975: The magazine cover of the January issue of "Popular Electronics" highlights the Altair 8080 as the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." After seeing the magazine issue, two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft.

1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak co-found Apple Computer on April Fool's Day. They unveil Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board and ROM (Read Only Memory), according to MIT .

1977: Radio Shack began its initial production run of 3,000 TRS-80 Model 1 computers — disparagingly known as the "Trash 80" — priced at $599, according to the National Museum of American History. Within a year, the company took 250,000 orders for the computer, according to the book " How TRS-80 Enthusiasts Helped Spark the PC Revolution " (The Seeker Books, 2007).

1977: The first West Coast Computer Faire is held in San Francisco. Jobs and Wozniak present the Apple II computer at the Faire, which includes color graphics and features an audio cassette drive for storage.

1978: VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program is introduced.

1979: MicroPro International, founded by software engineer Seymour Rubenstein, releases WordStar, the world's first commercially successful word processor. WordStar is programmed by Rob Barnaby, and includes 137,000 lines of code, according to Matthew G. Kirschenbaum's book " Track Changes: A Literary History of Word Processing " (Harvard University Press, 2016).

1981: "Acorn," IBM's first personal computer, is released onto the market at a price point of $1,565, according to IBM. Acorn uses the MS-DOS operating system from Windows. Optional features include a display, printer, two diskette drives, extra memory, a game adapter and more.

1983: The Apple Lisa, standing for "Local Integrated Software Architecture" but also the name of Steve Jobs' daughter, according to the National Museum of American History ( NMAH ), is the first personal computer to feature a GUI. The machine also includes a drop-down menu and icons. Also this year, the Gavilan SC is released and is the first portable computer with a flip-form design and the very first to be sold as a "laptop."

1984: The Apple Macintosh is announced to the world during a Superbowl advertisement. The Macintosh is launched with a retail price of $2,500, according to the NMAH. 

1985 : As a response to the Apple Lisa's GUI, Microsoft releases Windows in November 1985, the Guardian reported . Meanwhile, Commodore announces the Amiga 1000.

1989: Tim Berners-Lee, a British researcher at the European Organization for Nuclear Research ( CERN ), submits his proposal for what would become the World Wide Web. His paper details his ideas for Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), the building blocks of the Web. 

1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.

1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.

1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which at the time is struggling financially.  This investment ends an ongoing court case in which Apple accused Microsoft of copying its operating system. 

1999: Wi-Fi, the abbreviated term for "wireless fidelity" is developed, initially covering a distance of up to 300 feet (91 meters) Wired reported . 

21st century

2001: Mac OS X, later renamed OS X then simply macOS, is released by Apple as the successor to its standard Mac Operating System. OS X goes through 16 different versions, each with "10" as its title, and the first nine iterations are nicknamed after big cats, with the first being codenamed "Cheetah," TechRadar reported.  

2003: AMD's Athlon 64, the first 64-bit processor for personal computers, is released to customers. 

2004: The Mozilla Corporation launches Mozilla Firefox 1.0. The Web browser is one of the first major challenges to Internet Explorer, owned by Microsoft. During its first five years, Firefox exceeded a billion downloads by users, according to the Web Design Museum . 

2005: Google buys Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system

2006: The MacBook Pro from Apple hits the shelves. The Pro is the company's first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer. 

2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7 on July 22. The new operating system features the ability to pin applications to the taskbar, scatter windows away by shaking another window, easy-to-access jumplists, easier previews of tiles and more, TechRadar reported .  

2010: The iPad, Apple's flagship handheld tablet, is unveiled.

2011: Google releases the Chromebook, which runs on Google Chrome OS.

2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.

2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their system. They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland, College Park.

2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new "Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures."

2019: A team at Google became the first to demonstrate quantum supremacy — creating a quantum computer that could feasibly outperform the most powerful classical computer — albeit for a very specific problem with no practical real-world application. The described the computer, dubbed "Sycamore" in a paper that same year in the journal Nature . Achieving quantum advantage – in which a quantum computer solves a problem with real-world applications faster than the most powerful classical computer —  is still a ways off. 

2022: The first exascale supercomputer, and the world's fastest, Frontier, went online at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF) in Tennessee. Built by Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) at the cost of $600 million, Frontier uses nearly 10,000 AMD EPYC 7453 64-core CPUs alongside nearly 40,000 AMD Radeon Instinct MI250X GPUs. This machine ushered in the era of exascale computing, which refers to systems that can reach more than one exaFLOP of power – used to measure the performance of a system. Only one machine – Frontier – is currently capable of reaching such levels of performance. It is currently being used as a tool to aid scientific discovery.

What is the first computer in history?

Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, designed in the 1820s, is considered the first "mechanical" computer in history, according to the Science Museum in the U.K . Powered by steam with a hand crank, the machine calculated a series of values and printed the results in a table. 

What are the five generations of computing?

The "five generations of computing" is a framework for assessing the entire history of computing and the key technological advancements throughout it. 

The first generation, spanning the 1940s to the 1950s, covered vacuum tube-based machines. The second then progressed to incorporate transistor-based computing between the 50s and the 60s. In the 60s and 70s, the third generation gave rise to integrated circuit-based computing. We are now in between the fourth and fifth generations of computing, which are microprocessor-based and AI-based computing.

What is the most powerful computer in the world?

As of November 2023, the most powerful computer in the world is the Frontier supercomputer . The machine, which can reach a performance level of up to 1.102 exaFLOPS, ushered in the age of exascale computing in 2022 when it went online at Tennessee's  Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF) 

There is, however, a potentially more powerful supercomputer waiting in the wings in the form of the Aurora supercomputer, which is housed at the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) outside of Chicago.  Aurora went online in November 2023. Right now, it lags far behind Frontier, with performance levels of just 585.34 petaFLOPS (roughly half the performance of Frontier), although it's still not finished. When work is completed, the supercomputer is expected to reach performance levels higher than 2 exaFLOPS.

What was the first killer app?

Killer apps are widely understood to be those so essential that they are core to the technology they run on. There have been so many through the years – from Word for Windows in 1989 to iTunes in 2001 to social media apps like WhatsApp in more recent years

Several pieces of software may stake a claim to be the first killer app, but there is a broad consensus that VisiCalc, a spreadsheet program created by VisiCorp and originally released for the Apple II in 1979, holds that title. Steve Jobs even credits this app for propelling the Apple II to become the success it was, according to co-creator Dan Bricklin .

• Fortune: A Look Back At 40 Years of Apple
• The New Yorker: The First Windows
• " A Brief History of Computing " by Gerard O'Regan (Springer, 2021)

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Timothy is Editor in Chief of print and digital magazines All About History and History of War . He has previously worked on sister magazine All About Space , as well as photography and creative brands including Digital Photographer and 3D Artist . He has also written for How It Works magazine, several history bookazines and has a degree in English Literature from Bath Spa University . 

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How computer science played a role in computer development

(Image: Shutterstock)

Computer science continues to break boundaries today. Wearable electronic devices, self-driving cars, and video communications shape our lives on a daily basis. 

The history of computer science provides important context for today's innovations. Thanks to computer science, we landed a person on the moon, connected the world with the internet, and put a portable computing device in six billion hands .  

In 1961, George Forsythe came up with the term "computer science." Forsythe defined the field as programming theory, data processing, numerical analysis, and computer systems design. Only a year later, the first university computer science department was established. And Forsythe went on to found the computer science department at Stanford. 

Looking back at the development of computers and computer science offers valuable context for today's computer science professionals.

Milestones in the history of computer science

In the 1840s,  Ada Lovelace  became known as the first computer programmer when she described an operational sequence for machine-based problem solving. Since then, computer technology has taken off. A look back at the history of computer science shows the field's many critical developments, from the invention of punch cards to the transistor, computer chip, and personal computer. 

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the US Census

The US Census had to collect records from millions of Americans. To manage all that data, Herman Hollerith developed a new system to crunch the numbers. His  punch card system   became an early predecessor of the same method computers use. Hollerith used electricity to tabulate the census numbers. Instead of taking ten years to count by hand, the Census Bureau was able to take stock of America in one year.

1936: Alan Turing develops the Turing Machine

Computational philosopher Alan Turing came up with a new device in 1936: the  Turing Machine . The computational device, which Turing called an "automatic machine," calculated numbers. In doing so, Turing helped found computational science and the field of theoretical computer science.

1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded

Hewlett-Packard had humble beginnings in 1939 when friends  David Packard and William Hewlett  decided the order of their names in the company brand with a coin toss. The company originally created an oscillator machine used for Disney's  Fantasia.  Later, it turned into a printing and computing powerhouse.

1941: Konrad Zuse assembles the Z3 electronic computer

World War II represented a major leap forward for computing technology. Around the world, countries invested money in developing computing machines. In Germany,  Konrad Zuse  created the Z3 electronic computer. It was the first programmable computing machine ever built. The Z3 could store 64 numbers in its memory.

1943: John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)

The  ENIAC computer  was the size of a large room -- and it required programmers to connect wires manually to run calculations. The ENIAC boasted 18,000 vacuum tubes and 6,000 switches. The US hoped to use the machine to determine rocket trajectories during the War, but the 30-ton machine was so enormous that it took until 1945 to boot it up.

1947: Bell Telephone Laboratories invents transistors

Transistors magnify the power of electronics. And they came out of the  Bell Telephone  laboratories in 1947. Three physicians developed the new technology: William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. The men received the Nobel Prize for their invention, which changed the course of the electronics industry.

1948: Tom Kilburn's computer program is the first to run on a computer

For years, computer programmers had to manually program machines by moving wires between vacuum tubes, until  Tom Kilburn  created a computer program stored inside the computer. Thanks to his computer program, a 1948 computing machine could store 2048 bits of information for several hours. 

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, COBOL

Computer hardware predates computer software. But software took a major leap forward when  Grace Hopper  developed COBOL, the first computer language. Short for "common business-oriented language," COBOL taught computers to speak a standard language. Hopper, a Navy rear admiral, took computers a giant leap forward.

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce invent the computer chip

Working independently,  Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce  came up with an idea: an integrated circuit that could store information. The microchip, as it became known, used the transistor as a jumping off point to create an entire computer chip made from silicone. The computer chip opened the door to many important advances.

1962: First computer science department formed at Purdue University

As an academic discipline, computer science ranks as fairly new. In 1962, Purdue University opened the very first  computer science department . The first computer science majors used punch card decks, programming flowcharts, and "textbooks" created by the faculty, since none existed.

1964: Douglas Engelbart develops a prototype for the modern computer

The inventor  Douglas Engelbart  came up with a tool that would shape modern computing: the mouse. The tool would help make computers accessible to millions of users. And that wasn't Engelbart's only contribution -- he also built a graphics user interface (GUI) that would shape the modern computer. 

1971: IBM invents the floppy disk and Xerox invents the laser printer

The floppy disk might be a relic of the past in the 21st century, but it was a major leap forward in 1971 when IBM developed the technology. Capable of storing much more data and making it portable, the floppy disk opened up new frontiers. That same year, Xerox came up with the laser printer, an invention still used in offices around the world.

1974: The first personal computers hit the market

By the 1970s, inventors chased the idea of personal computers. Thanks to microchips and new technologies, computers shrunk in size and price. In 1974, the  Altair  hit the market. A build-it-yourself kit, the Altair cost $400 and sold thousands of copies. The next year, Paul G. Allen and Bill Gates created a programming language for the Altair and used the money they made to found Microsoft.

1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak found Apple Computer

Working out of a Silicon Valley garage,  Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak  founded Apple Computer in 1976. The new company would produce personal computers and skyrocket to the top spot in the tech industry. Decades later, Apple continues to innovate in personal computing devices.

1980 - Present: Rapid computing inventions and the Dot-com boom

What did computer science history look like in 1980? Few homes had personal computers, which were still quite expensive. Compare that situation to today: In 2020, the average American household had  more than ten computing devices . 

What changed? For one, computer science technology took some major leaps forward, thanks to new tech companies, demand for devices, and the rise of mobile technology. In the 1990s, the Dot-com boom turned investors into overnight millionaires. Smartphones, artificial intelligence, Bluetooth, self-driving cars, and more represent the recent past and the future of computer science.

Seven impacts of computer science development

It's hard to fully grasp the impact of computer science development. Thanks to computer science, people around the world can connect instantly, live longer lives, and share their voices. In diverse computer science jobs, tech professionals contribute to society in many ways.

This section looks at how the history of computer science has shaped our present and our future. From fighting climate change to predicting natural disasters, computer science makes a difference.

1. Connects people regardless of location

During the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of Americans suddenly relied on video chat services to connect with their loved ones. Communications-focused computer science disciplines link people around the globe. From virtual communications to streaming technology, these technologies keep people connected.

2 . Impacts every aspect of day-to-day life

Millions of Americans wake up every morning thanks to a smartphone alarm, use digital maps to find local restaurants, check their social media profiles to connect with old friends, and search for unique items at online stores. From finding new recipes to checking who rang the doorbell, computer science shapes many choices in our daily lives.

3. Provides security solutions

Cybersecurity goes far beyond protecting data. Information security also keeps airports, public spaces, and governments safe. Computer security solutions keep our online data private while cleaning up after data breaches. Ethical hackers continue to test for weaknesses to protect information.

4. Saves lives

Computer science algorithms make it easier than ever before to predict catastrophic weather and natural disasters. Thanks to early warning systems, people can evacuate before a hurricane touches ground or take shelter when a tsunami might hit. These computer science advances make a major difference by saving lives.

5. Alleviates societal issues

Global issues like climate change, poverty, and sanitation require advanced solutions. Computer science gives us new tools to fight these major issues -- and the resources to help individuals advocate for change. Online platforms make it easier for charities to raise money to support their causes, for example.

6. Gives a voice to anyone with computer access

Computer access opens up a whole new world. Thanks to computers, people can learn more about social movements, educate themselves on major issues, and build communities to advocate for change. They can also develop empathy for others. Of course, that same power can be used to alienate and harm, adding an important layer of responsibility for computer scientists developing new tools.

7. Improves healthcare

Electronic medical records, health education resources, and cutting-edge advances in genomics and personalized medicine have revolutionized healthcare -- and these shifts will continue to shape the field in the future. Computer science has many medical applications, making it a critical field for promoting health. 

In conclusion

Computer science professionals participate in a long legacy of changing the world for the better. Students considering a computer science degree should understand the history of computer science development -- including the potential harm that technology can cause. By educating themselves with computer science resources, tech professionals can understand the responsibility their field holds. 

By practicing computer science ethically, professionals can make sure the future of tech positively and productively benefits society while also protecting the security, privacy, and equality of individuals.

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Essay on History of Computer

Students are often asked to write an essay on History of Computer in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on History of Computer

Early beginnings.

Computers didn’t always look like the laptops or smartphones we use today. The first computer was the abacus, invented in 2400 BC. It used beads to help people calculate.

First Mechanical Computer

In 1822, Charles Babbage, a British mathematician, designed a mechanical computer called the “Difference Engine.” It was supposed to perform mathematical calculations.

The Birth of Modern Computers

The first modern computer was created in the 1930s. It was huge and filled an entire room. These computers used vacuum tubes to process information.

Personal Computers

In the 1970s, companies like Apple and IBM started making personal computers. This made it possible for people to have computers at home.

Remember, computers have come a long way and continue to evolve!

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250 Words Essay on History of Computer

Introduction.

The history of computers is a fascinating journey, tracing back several centuries. It illustrates human ingenuity and evolution from primitive calculators to complex computing systems.

Early Computers

The concept of computing dates back to antiquity. The abacus, developed in 2400 BC, is often considered the earliest computer. In the 19th century, Charles Babbage conceptualized and designed the first mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine, which used punch cards for instructions.

Birth of Modern Computers

The 20th century heralded the era of modern computing. The first programmable computer, the Z3, was built by Konrad Zuse in 1941. However, it was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), developed in 1946, that truly revolutionized computing with its electronic technology.

Personal Computers and the Internet

The 1970s and 1980s saw the advent of personal computers (PCs). The Apple II, introduced in 1977, and IBM’s PC, launched in 1981, brought computers to the masses. The 1990s marked the birth of the internet, transforming computers into communication devices and information gateways.

Present and Future

In summary, the history of computers is a testament to human innovation, evolving from simple counting devices to powerful tools that shape our lives. As we look forward to the future, the potential for further advancements in computing technology is limitless.

500 Words Essay on History of Computer

The dawn of computing.

The history of computers dates back to antiquity with devices like the abacus, used for calculations. However, the concept of a programmable computer was first realized in the 19th century by Charles Babbage, an English mathematician. His design, known as the Analytical Engine, is considered the first general-purpose computer, although it was never built.

During the same period, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was developed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. Completed in 1945, it was the first general-purpose electronic computer. However, it was not programmable in the modern sense.

The Era of Transistors

The late 1940s marked the invention of the transistor, which revolutionized the computer industry. Transistors were faster, smaller, and more reliable than their vacuum tube counterparts. The first transistorized computer was built at the University of Manchester in 1953.

The 1950s and 1960s saw the development of mainframe computers, like IBM’s 700 series, which dominated the computing world for the next two decades. These machines were large and expensive, but they allowed multiple users to access the computer simultaneously through terminals.

Microprocessors and Personal Computers

The invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s marked the beginning of the personal computer era. The Intel 4004, released in 1971, was the first commercially available microprocessor. This development led to the creation of small, relatively inexpensive machines like the Apple II and the IBM PC, which made computing accessible to individuals and small businesses.

The Internet and Beyond

The 1980s and 1990s brought about the rise of the internet and the World Wide Web, expanding the use of computers into every aspect of modern life. The advent of graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft’s Windows and Apple’s Mac OS, made computers even more user-friendly.

Today, computers have become ubiquitous in our society. They are embedded in everything from our phones to our cars, and they play a critical role in fields ranging from science to entertainment. The history of computers is a story of continuous innovation and progress, and it is clear that this trend will continue into the foreseeable future.

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How to Write the “Why Computer Science?” Essay

What’s covered:, what is the purpose of the “why computer science” essay, elements of a good computer science essay, computer science essay example, where to get your essay edited.

You will encounter many essay prompts as you start applying to schools, but if you are intent on majoring in computer science or a related field, you will come across the “ Why Computer Science? ” essay archetype. It’s important that you know the importance behind this prompt and what constitutes a good response in order to make your essay stand out.

For more information on writing essays, check out CollegeVine’s extensive essay guides that include everything from general tips, to essay examples, to essay breakdowns that will help you write the essays for over 100 schools.

Colleges ask you to write a “ Why Computer Science? ” essay so you may communicate your passion for computer science, and demonstrate how it aligns with your personal and professional goals. Admissions committees want to see that you have a deep interest and commitment to the field, and that you have a vision for how a degree in computer science will propel your future aspirations.

The essay provides an opportunity to distinguish yourself from other applicants. It’s your chance to showcase your understanding of the discipline, your experiences that sparked or deepened your interest in the field, and your ambitions for future study and career. You can detail how a computer science degree will equip you with the skills and knowledge you need to make a meaningful contribution in this rapidly evolving field.

A well-crafted “ Why Computer Science? ” essay not only convinces the admissions committee of your enthusiasm and commitment to computer science, but also provides a glimpse of your ability to think critically, solve problems, and communicate effectively—essential skills for a  computer scientist.

The essay also gives you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the specific computer science program at the college or university you are applying to. You can discuss how the program’s resources, faculty, curriculum, and culture align with your academic interests and career goals. A strong “ Why Computer Science? ” essay shows that you have done your research, and that you are applying to the program not just because you want to study computer science, but because you believe that this particular program is the best fit for you.

Writing an effective “ Why Computer Science ?” essay often requires a blend of two popular college essay archetypes: “ Why This Major? ” and “ Why This College? “.

Explain “Why This Major?”

The “ Why This Major? ” essay is an opportunity for you to dig deep into your motivations and passions for studying Computer Science. It’s about sharing your ‘origin story’ of how your interest in Computer Science took root and blossomed. This part of your essay could recount an early experience with coding, a compelling Computer Science class you took, or a personal project that sparked your fascination.

What was the journey that led you to this major? Was it a particular incident, or did your interest evolve over time? Did you participate in related activities, like coding clubs, online courses, hackathons, or internships?

Importantly, this essay should also shed light on your future aspirations. How does your interest in Computer Science connect to your career goals? What kind of problems do you hope to solve with your degree?

The key for a strong “ Why This Major? ” essay is to make the reader understand your connection to the subject. This is done through explaining your fascination and love for computer science. What emotions do you feel when you are coding? How does it make you feel when you figure out the solution after hours of trying? What aspects of your personality shine when you are coding? 

By addressing these questions, you can effectively demonstrate a deep, personal, and genuine connection with the major.

Emphasize “Why This College?”

The “ Why This College? ” component of the essay demonstrates your understanding of the specific university and its Computer Science program. This is where you show that you’ve done your homework about the college, and you know what resources it has to support your academic journey.

What unique opportunities does the university offer for Computer Science students? Are there particular courses, professors, research opportunities, or clubs that align with your interests? Perhaps there’s a study abroad program or an industry partnership that could give you a unique learning experience. Maybe the university has a particular teaching methodology that resonates with you.

Also, think about the larger university community. What aspects of the campus culture, community, location, or extracurricular opportunities enhance your interest in this college? Remember, this is not about general praises but about specific features that align with your goals. How will these resources and opportunities help you explore your interests further and achieve your career goals? How does the university’s vision and mission resonate with your own values and career aspirations?

It’s important when discussing the school’s resources that you always draw a connection between the opportunity and yourself. For example, don’t tell us you want to work with X professor because of their work pioneering regenerative AI. Go a step further and say because of your goal to develop AI surgeons for remote communities, learning how to strengthen AI feedback loops from X professor would bring you one step closer to achieving your dream.

By articulating your thoughts on these aspects, you demonstrate a strong alignment between the college and your academic goals, enhancing your appeal as a prospective student.

Demonstrate a Deep Understanding of Computer Science

As with a traditional “ Why This Major? ” essay, you must exhibit a deep and clear understanding of computer science. Discuss specific areas within the field that pique your interest and why. This could range from artificial intelligence to software development, or from data science to cybersecurity. 

What’s important is to not just boast and say “ I have a strong grasp on cybersecurity ”, but instead use your knowledge to show your readers your passion: “ After being bombarded with cyber attack after cyber attack, I explained to my grandparents the concept of end-to-end encryption and how phishing was not the same as a peaceful afternoon on a lake. ”

Make it Fun!

Students make the mistake of thinking their college essays have to be serious and hyper-professional. While you don’t want to be throwing around slang and want to present yourself in a positive light, you shouldn’t feel like you’re not allowed to have fun with your essay. Let your personality shine and crack a few jokes.

You can, and should, also get creative with your essay. A great way to do this in a computer science essay is to incorporate lines of code or write the essay like you are writing out code. 

Now we will go over a real “ Why Computer Science? ” essay a student submitted and explore what the essay did well, and where there is room for improvement.

Please note: Looking at examples of real essays students have submitted to colleges can be very beneficial to get inspiration for your essays. You should never copy or plagiarize from these examples when writing your own essays. Colleges can tell when an essay isn’t genuine and will not view students favorably if they plagiarized.

I held my breath and hit RUN. Yes! A plump white cat jumped out and began to catch the falling pizzas. Although my Fat Cat project seems simple now, it was the beginning of an enthusiastic passion for computer science. Four years and thousands of hours of programming later, that passion has grown into an intense desire to explore how computer science can serve society. Every day, surrounded by technology that can recognize my face and recommend scarily-specific ads, I’m reminded of Uncle Ben’s advice to a young Spiderman: “with great power comes great responsibility”. Likewise, the need to ensure digital equality has skyrocketed with AI’s far-reaching presence in society; and I believe that digital fairness starts with equality in education.

The unique use of threads at the College of Computing perfectly matches my interests in AI and its potential use in education; the path of combined threads on Intelligence and People gives me the rare opportunity to delve deep into both areas. I’m particularly intrigued by the rich sets of both knowledge-based and data-driven intelligence courses, as I believe AI should not only show correlation of events, but also provide insight for why they occur.

In my four years as an enthusiastic online English tutor, I’ve worked hard to help students overcome both financial and technological obstacles in hopes of bringing quality education to people from diverse backgrounds. For this reason, I’m extremely excited by the many courses in the People thread that focus on education and human-centered technology. I’d love to explore how to integrate AI technology into the teaching process to make education more available, affordable, and effective for people everywhere. And with the innumerable opportunities that Georgia Tech has to offer, I know that I will be able to go further here than anywhere else.

What the Essay Did Well 

This essay perfectly accomplishes the two key parts of a “ Why Computer Science? ” essay: answering “ Why This Major? ” and “ Why This College? ”. Not to mention, we get a lot of insight into this student and what they care about beyond computer science, and a fun hook at the beginning.

Starting with the “ Why This Major? ” aspect of the response, this essay demonstrates what got the student into computer science, why they are passionate about the subject, and what their goals are. They show us their introduction to the world of CS with an engaging hook: “I held my breath and hit RUN. Yes! A plump white cat jumped out and began to catch the falling pizzas. ” We then see this is a core passion because they spent “ Four years and thousands of hours ,” coding.

The student shows us why they care about AI with the sentence, “ Every day, surrounded by technology that can recognize my face and recommend scarily-specific ads ,” which makes the topic personal by demonstrating their fear at AI’s capabilities. But, rather than let panic overwhelm them, the student calls upon Spiderman and tells us their goal of establishing digital equality through education. This provides a great basis for the rest of the essay, as it thoroughly explains the students motivations and goals, and demonstrates their appreciation for interdisciplinary topics.

Then, the essay shifts into answering “ Why This College? ”, which it does very well by honing in on a unique facet of Georgia Tech’s College of Computing: threads. This is a great example of how to provide depth to the school resources you mention. The student describes the two threads and not only why the combination is important to them, but how their previous experiences (i.e. online English tutor) correlate to the values of the thread: “ For this reason, I’m extremely excited by the many courses in the People thread that focus on education and human-centered technology. ”

What Could Be Improved

This essay does a good job covering the basics of the prompt, but it could be elevated with more nuance and detail. The biggest thing missing from this essay is a strong core to tie everything together. What do we mean by that? We want to see a common theme, anecdote, or motivation that is weaved throughout the entire essay to connect everything. Take the Spiderman quote for example. If this was expanded, it could have been the perfect core for this essay.

Underlying this student’s interest in AI is a passion for social justice, so they could have used the quote about power and responsibility to talk about existing injustices with AI and how once they have the power to create AI they will act responsibly and help affected communities. They are clearly passionate about equality of education, but there is a disconnect between education and AI that comes from a lack of detail. To strengthen the core of the essay, this student needs to include real-world examples of how AI is fostering inequities in education. This takes their essay from theoretical to practical.

Whether you’re a seasoned writer or a novice trying your hand at college application essays, the review and editing process is crucial. A fresh set of eyes can provide valuable insights into the clarity, coherence, and impact of your writing. Our free Peer Essay Review tool offers a unique platform to get your essay reviewed by another student. Peer reviews can often uncover gaps, provide new insights or enhance the clarity of your essay, making your arguments more compelling. The best part? You can return the favor by reviewing other students’ essays, which is a great way to hone your own writing and critical thinking skills.

For a more professional touch, consider getting your essay reviewed by a college admissions expert . CollegeVine advisors have years of experience helping students refine their writing and successfully apply to top-tier schools. They can provide specific advice on how to showcase your strengths, address any weaknesses, and generally present yourself in the best possible light.

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Computer Science Essay Examples

Explore 15+ Brilliant Computer Science Essay Examples: Tips Included

Published on: May 5, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Do you struggle with writing computer science essays that get you the grades you deserve?

If so, you're not alone!

Crafting a top-notch essay can be a daunting task, but it's crucial to your success in the field of computer science.

For that, CollegeEssay.org has a solution for you!

In this comprehensive guide, we'll provide you with inspiring examples of computer science essays. You'll learn everything you need to know to write effective and compelling essays that impress your professors and get you the grades you deserve.

So, let's dive in and discover the secrets to writing amazing computer science essays!

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Computer Science Essays: Understanding the Basics

A computer science essay is a piece of writing that explores a topic related to computer science. It may take different forms, such as an argumentative essay, a research paper, a case study, or a reflection paper. 

Just like any other essay, it should be well-researched, clear, concise, and effectively communicate the writer's ideas and arguments.

Computer essay examples encompass a wide range of topics and types, providing students with a diverse set of writing opportunities. 

Here, we will explore some common types of computer science essays:

Middle School Computer Science Essay Example

College Essay Example Computer Science

University Computer Science Essay Example

Computer Science Extended Essay Example

Uiuc Computer Science Essay Example [

Computer Science Essay Examples For Different Fields

Computer science is a broad field that encompasses many different areas of study. For that, given below are some examples of computer science essays for some of the most popular fields within the discipline. 

By exploring these examples, you can gain insight into the different types of essays within this field.

College Application Essay Examples Computer Science

The Future of Computers Technology

Historical Development of Computer Science

Young Children and Technology: Building Computer Literacy

Computer Science And Artificial Intelligence

Looking for more examples of computer science essays? Given below are some additional examples of computer science essays for readers to explore and gain further inspiration from. 

Computer Science – My Choice for Future Career

My Motivation to Pursue Undergraduate Studies in Computer Engineering

Abstract Computer Science

Computer Science Personal Statement Example

Sop For Computer Science

Computer Science Essay Topics

There are countless computer science essay topics to choose from, so it can be challenging to narrow down your options. 

However, the key is to choose a topic that you are passionate about and that aligns with your assignment requirements.

Here are ten examples of computer science essay topics to get you started:

• The impact of artificial intelligence on society: benefits and drawbacks
• Cybersecurity measures in cloud computing systems
• The Ethics of big data: privacy, bias, and Transparency
• The future of quantum computing: possibilities and challenges
• The Role of computer hardware in Healthcare: current applications and potential innovations
• Programming languages: a comparative analysis of their strengths and weaknesses
• The use of machine learning in predicting human behavior
• The challenges and solutions for developing secure and reliable software
• The Role of blockchain technology in improving supply chain management
• The use of data analytics in business decision-making.

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Tips to Write an Effective Computer Science Essay

Writing an effective computer science essay requires a combination of technical expertise and strong writing skills. Here are some tips to help you craft a compelling and well-written essay:

Understand the Requirements: Make sure you understand the assignment requirements, including the essay type, format, and length.

• Choose a Topic: Select a topic that you are passionate about and that aligns with your assignment requirements.
• Create an Outline: Develop a clear and organized outline that highlights the main points and subtopics of your essay.
• Use Appropriate Language and Tone: Use technical terms and language when appropriate. But ensure your writing is clear, concise, and accessible to your target audience.
• Provide Evidence: Use relevant and credible evidence to support your claims, and ensure you cite your sources correctly.
• Edit and Proofread Your Essay: Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and formatting issues.

By following these tips, you can improve the quality of your computer science essay and increase your chances of success.

In conclusion, writing a computer science essay can be a challenging yet rewarding experience. 

It allows you to showcase your knowledge and skills within the field and develop your writing and critical thinking abilities. By following the examples provided in this blog, you can create an effective computer science essay, which will meet your requirements.

If you find yourself struggling with the writing process, consider seeking essay writing help online from CollegeEssay.org. 

Our AI essay writer can provide guidance and support in crafting a top-notch computer science essay.

So, what are you waiting for? Hire our computer science essay writing service today!

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As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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Essay on History of computers/Evolution of Computers

Essay on History of computers/Evolution of Computers 400-500 words

While computers are now an important part of human life, there was a time when computers did not exist. Knowing the history of computers and their progress can help us understand how complex and innovative computer manufacturing is.

Unlike most devices, the computer is one of the few inventions that does not have a specific inventor. During the development of computers, many people have added their creations to the list of essentials for a computer to work. Some of the inventions have been different types of computers, and some of them were parts that allowed the computer to be further developed.

Perhaps the most important date in the history of computers is 1936. In the same year, the first “computer” was developed. It was created by Konrad Zuse and dubbed the Z1 computer. This computer stands as the first because it was the first fully programmable system. There were devices before this, but none had the computing power that differentiates it from other electronics.

No business had seen profit and opportunity in computers until 1942. This first company was called ABC Computer, which was owned and operated by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. Two years later, the Harvard Mark I computer was developed, advancing the science of computing.

During the next few years, inventors around the world began to discover more about computers to study and how to improve upon them. They call the introduction of the transistor in the next ten years, which would become an important part of the inner workings of the computer, the ENIAC 1 computer, as well as many other types of systems. ENIAC 1 is probably one of the most interesting, as it requires 20,000 vacuum tubes to operate. It was a huge machine, and it started a revolution to make computers smaller and faster.

The computer age was changed forever by the introduction of International Business Machines, or IBM, in the computing industry in 1953. Throughout computer history, this company has been a major player in the development of new systems and servers for the public. And personal use. This introduction brought the first real signs of competition within computing history, leading to faster and better development of computers. His first contribution was the IBM 701 EDPM computer.

Development of programming language

A year later, the first successful high-level programming language was created. It was a programming language not written in ‘assembly’ or binary, which is considered a very low-level language. FORTRAN was written so that more and more people could start programming computers easily.

In 1955, Bank of America teamed up with Stanford Research Institute and General Electric to build the first computers for use in banks. MICR, or Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, along with the actual computer, ERMA, was a breakthrough for the banking industry. It was not until 1959 that the pairing system was put into use in actual banks.

In 1958, one of the most important breakthroughs in computer history was the creation of the integrated circuit. This device, also known as a chip, is now one of the basic requirements for modern computer systems. On each motherboard and card within a computer system, there are several chips that contain information about what the board and card do. Without these chips, the system as we know them today could not function.

Gaming, Mice and the Internet

For many computer users, games are an important part of the computing experience. In 1962 the first computer game ‘Spacewar’ was created by Steve Russell and MIT.

One of the most basic components of a modern computer, the mouse, was created in 1964 by Douglas Engelbart. It derived its name from the “tail” emanating from the device.

One of the most important aspects of the computer today was invented in 1969. The ARPA net was the original Internet, which provided the foundation for the Internet as we know it today. This development will result in the growth of knowledge and business across the planet.

It wasn’t until 1970 that Intel entered the scene with the first dynamic RAM chip, resulting in an explosion of computer science innovation.

The first microprocessor was on the heels of the RAM chip, also designed by Intel. Apart from the chip developed in 1958, these two components would form the core components of modern computers.

A year later, the floppy disk was created, which derives its name from the flexibility of the storage unit. This was the first step in allowing most people to transfer bits of data between unconnected computers.

The first networking cards were made in 1973, allowing data transfer between connected computers. It is similar to the Internet but allows computers to connect without the use of the Internet.

The emergence of home PCs

The next three years were very important for computers. This was when companies started developing systems for the average consumer. The Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Apple I and II, TRS-80, and Commodore pet computers were pioneers in this area. Along with being expensive, these machines started the trend of computers in common homes.

One of the most prominent change in computer software occurred in 1978 with the release of the VisiCalc spreadsheet program. All development costs were paid off within a two-week period, making it one of the most successful programs in computer history.

The IBM home computer helped revolutionize the consumer market rapidly in 1981, as it was affordable for homeowners and standard consumers. In 1981 also the mega-giant Microsoft entered the scene with the MS-DOS operating system. This operating system completely changed computing forever, as it was easy enough for everyone to learn.

The Competition Begins Apple vs. Microsoft

During the year 1983, computers saw another significant change. The Apple Lisa computer was the first with a graphical user interface or GUI. Most modern programs have a GUI, which allows them to be easy to use and pleasant to the eye. This marked the beginning of our dating most text-based only programs .

Beyond this point in computer history, there have been many changes and changes, from the Apple-Microsoft wars to the development of microcomputers and the variety of computer breakthroughs that have become an accepted part of our daily lives. Without the very early first stages of computer history, none of this would have been possible.

Table of Contents

Essay 2 200 words

Early computer.

The history of computers dates back to the early 1900s; in fact, computers have been around for more than 5000 years.

In ancient times a “computer” (or “computer”) was a person who performed numerical calculations under the direction of a mathematician.

Some of the better-known tools used are the abacus or the Antikythera Tantra.

Around 1725, Basil Bouchon took paper punched in a loom to set the pattern to be reproduced on the cloth. This ensured that the pattern was always the same and there was hardly any human error.

Later, in 1801, Joseph Jacquard (1752 – 1834) used the punch card idea to automate more devices with great success.

Pollution Essay in Hindi/प्रदूषण पर लघु निबंध

First computer?

Charles Babbage. (1792–1871), was ahead of his time, and using the punch card idea, he developed the first computing devices that suffices scientific purposes. He invented Charles Babbage’s differential engine, which he started in 1823 but never completed. He later began work on the Analytical Engine, which was designed in 1842.

The credit for inventing computing concepts goes to Babbage because of his findings such as conditional branches, iterative loops, and index variables.

Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), a collaborator of Babbage and the founder of scientific computing.

Babbage’s inventions were greatly improved upon, with George Scheutz working on a smaller version with his son Edward Scheutz, and by 1853 he had built a machine that could process 15-digit numbers and fourths. Could calculate the difference of the sequence.

Among the first notable commercial use (and success) of computers was the US Census Bureau, which used a punch-card device designed by Herman Hollerith to tabulate data for the 1890 census.

To compensate for the cyclical nature of the Census Bureau’s demand for its machines, Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company (1896), one of three companies that merged to form IBM in 1911.

Use of digital electronics in computers

Later, Claude Shannon (1916–2001) first suggested the use of digital electronics in computers, and in 1937 and J.V. Atanasoff built the first electronic computer that could solve 29 equations simultaneously with 29 unknowns. But this device was not programmable.

During that crisis, the development of computers was rapid. But many projects remained secret until much later due to restrictions, and a notable example is the British Army “Colossus” developed by Alan Turing and his team in 1943.

In the late 1940s, the US Army commissioned John V. Mauchly to develop a device to calculate ballistics during World War II. As it turned out, the machine was only produced in 1945, but the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC, proved to be a turning point in computer history.

The ENIAC proved to be a very efficient machine but not very easy to operate. Any change sometimes requires reprogramming the device. Engineers were aware of this obvious problem and developed a “stored program architecture.”

John von Neumann (a consultant to ENIAC), Mauchly, and his team developed EDVAC, this new project using stored programs.

Eckert and Mauchly later developed what was arguably the first commercially successful computer, the UNIVAC.

Software technology was very primitive during this period. The first programs were written in machine code. By the 1950s, programmers were using a symbolic notation known as assembly language, then translating the symbolic notation into machine code by hand. The programs later known as assemblers did the translation work.

The end of the transistor era, inventor.

The late 1950s saw the end of valve-operated computers. Transistor-based computers were  were smaller, cheaper, faster, and much more reliable.

Corporations were now building new computers instead of inventors.

Some of the better known are:

TRADIC at Bell Laboratories in 1954,

TX-0 at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory

The IBM 704 and its successors, the 709 and 7094. The latter introduced I/O processors for better throughput between I/O devices and main memory.

The first food computers, the Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC) and the IBM 7030 (aka Stretch)

Texas Instrument Advanced Scientific Computer (TI-ASC)

Now that was the basis of computers, computers with transistors were faster, and with stored-program architecture, you could use computers for almost anything.

New higher-level programs soon followed, FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959), with Cambridge and the University of London collaborating in the development of the CPL (Combined Programming Language, 1963). Martin Richards of Cambridge developed a subset of CPL called BCPL (Basic Computer Programming Language, 1967).

1969’s latest release, the CDC 7600, could perform 10 million floating-point operations (10 Mflops) per second.

Network year.

Since 1985, there was a competition to install more and more transistors on a computer. Each of them could perform a simple operation. But computers haven’t evolved much other than being faster and capable of doing more operations.

The concept of parallel processing has been more widely used since the 1990s.

In the field of computer networking, both wide area network (WAN) and local area network (LAN) technology developed rapidly.

Ref: myodopc

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Essay on Computer

Here we have shared the Essay on Computer in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

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Essay on Computer in 150 words

Essay on computer in 200-300 words.

• Essay on Computer in 500 words

Computers have revolutionized our lives, becoming essential tools for communication, work, and access to information. They have simplified tasks, increased efficiency, and opened up new possibilities. The internet, accessible through computers, has connected people globally, changing the way we socialize and access entertainment. Industries such as healthcare and finance have been transformed by computers, improving accuracy and decision-making. However, challenges such as cybersecurity threats and privacy concerns exist. In conclusion, computers have profoundly impacted society, enhancing productivity and connectivity. Their role in education, business, and research is undeniable. While enjoying the benefits of computers, it is important to address the challenges they present and ensure responsible and secure use. Computers are a fundamental part of our lives, shaping the way we live, work, and interact with the world.

Computers have become an integral part of our modern world. They have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. A computer is an electronic device that processes and stores data, performs tasks, and enables us to access information from around the world.

Computers have transformed various aspects of our lives. They have simplified tasks, increased efficiency, and opened up new possibilities for creativity and innovation. From personal computers to laptops, tablets, and smartphones, these devices have become essential tools in education, business, entertainment, and research.

The internet made accessible through computers, has connected people globally, enabling instant communication, sharing of information, and collaboration across borders. Online platforms and applications have changed the way we socialize, shop, and access entertainment.

Computers have also revolutionized industries such as healthcare, finance, and transportation, improving efficiency, accuracy, and decision-making. They play a vital role in scientific research, data analysis, and simulations.

However, the rapid advancement of technology has also brought challenges. Cybersecurity threats, privacy concerns, and the digital divide are important issues that need to be addressed.

In conclusion, computers have transformed the world, making tasks easier, connecting people globally, and enabling advancements in various fields. Their impact on society is profound, with both positive and negative consequences. As technology continues to evolve, it is crucial to embrace its benefits while also addressing the challenges it presents. Computers have undoubtedly become an indispensable part of our lives, shaping the way we live and interact with the world.

Essay on Computer in 500-1000 words

Title: The Computer Revolution – Transforming Lives, Empowering Innovation

Introduction :

The computer has undoubtedly become an integral part of our modern world, revolutionizing the way we live, work, and communicate. This essay explores the profound impact of computers on society, delving into their history, evolution, and the transformative role they play in various aspects of our lives. From personal computers to smartphones and cloud computing, the computer has become an indispensable tool in education, business, healthcare, entertainment, and research. However, as computers continue to advance, challenges such as cybersecurity threats and privacy concerns arise, necessitating responsible use and the development of ethical frameworks.

The Evolution of Computers

The computer, as we know it today, has a rich history that dates back several decades. From the early mechanical devices to modern digital computers, the evolution of computers has been driven by advancements in technology and the quest for increased computational power and efficiency. Pioneers such as Charles Babbage, Alan Turing, and Grace Hopper laid the foundation for modern computing, introducing concepts like programmability and binary code.

Computing in Education

Computers have transformed the landscape of education. They have become essential tools for students, educators, and researchers. Computers facilitate online learning, providing access to vast amounts of educational resources, interactive tutorials, and collaborative platforms. They enable personalized learning experiences, adaptive assessments, and distance education, making education accessible to a wider audience. Additionally, computers enhance productivity, allowing students to complete assignments, conduct research, and communicate with peers and teachers more efficiently.

Computers in Business

The business world has been revolutionized by computers. From small startups to multinational corporations, computers have become indispensable for efficient operations, data management, and communication. They enable streamlined processes, data analysis, and decision-making. Computers have transformed various industries, including finance, marketing, supply chain management, and customer service. With the advent of e-commerce, computers have opened up new avenues for online businesses and global trade. The digitalization of business processes has increased efficiency, reduced costs, and facilitated global collaborations.

Computers in Healthcare

Computers have significantly impacted the healthcare industry, improving patient care, diagnostics, and research. Electronic health records (EHRs) enable secure storage and efficient retrieval of patient information, reducing errors and improving healthcare delivery. Computer-aided diagnostics and medical imaging technologies have enhanced accuracy and speed in detecting diseases. Telemedicine and telehealth have extended healthcare access to remote areas, allowing patients to consult with healthcare professionals virtually. Additionally, computers play a vital role in medical research, enabling data analysis, simulations, and drug discovery.

The Role of Computers in Entertainment and Media

Computers have transformed the entertainment and media industry. From digital streaming platforms to online gaming, computers have revolutionized the way we consume and create content. They enable immersive virtual reality experiences, computer-generated imagery (CGI) in movies, and interactive storytelling. Social media platforms provide avenues for self-expression, communication, and content sharing. Computers have democratized content creation, allowing individuals to create and distribute their work on platforms like YouTube, blogs, and podcasts.

Challenges and Concerns

While computers offer immense benefits, they also present challenges and concerns. Cybersecurity threats, such as hacking and identity theft, pose risks to individuals and organizations. Privacy concerns arise as personal data becomes more accessible and vulnerable to misuse. Additionally, the digital divide creates disparities in access to technology, limiting opportunities for certain populations. It is crucial to address these challenges through robust cybersecurity measures, privacy regulations, and efforts to bridge the digital divide.

Conclusion :

The computer revolution has transformed our lives, empowering innovation, enhancing productivity, and connecting people across the globe. Computers have revolutionized education, business, healthcare, and entertainment, enabling advancements and opening up new possibilities. However, as technology continues to evolve, it is important to address challenges such as cybersecurity threats, privacy concerns, and the digital divide. Responsible use, ethical frameworks, and continuous efforts to enhance cybersecurity and privacy safeguards are necessary to harness the full potential of computers. With responsible usage and thoughtful integration into various sectors, computers will continue to shape our world, fostering progress, innovation, and connectivity.

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Analog computers

Mainframe computer.

• Supercomputer
• Minicomputer
• Microcomputer
• Laptop computer
• Embedded processors
• Central processing unit
• Main memory
• Secondary memory
• Input devices
• Output devices
• Communication devices
• Peripheral interfaces
• Fabrication
• Transistor size
• Power consumption
• Quantum computing
• Molecular computing
• Role of operating systems
• Multiuser systems
• Thin systems
• Reactive systems
• Operating system design approaches
• Local area networks
• Wide area networks
• Business and personal software
• Scientific and engineering software
• Internet and collaborative software
• Games and entertainment
• Analog calculators: from Napier’s logarithms to the slide rule
• Digital calculators: from the Calculating Clock to the Arithmometer
• The Jacquard loom
• The Difference Engine
• The Analytical Engine
• Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
• Herman Hollerith’s census tabulator
• Other early business machine companies
• Vannevar Bush’s Differential Analyzer
• Howard Aiken’s digital calculators
• The Turing machine
• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
• The first computer network
• Konrad Zuse
• Bigger brains
• Von Neumann’s “Preliminary Discussion”
• The first stored-program machines
• Machine language
• Zuse’s Plankalkül
• Interpreters
• Grace Murray Hopper
• IBM develops FORTRAN
• Control programs
• The IBM 360
• Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX
• Minicomputers
• Integrated circuits
• The Intel 4004
• Early computer enthusiasts
• The hobby market expands
• From Star Trek to Microsoft
• Application software
• Commodore and Tandy enter the field
• The graphical user interface
• The IBM Personal Computer
• Microsoft’s Windows operating system
• Workstation computers
• Embedded systems
• Handheld digital devices
• The Internet
• Social networking
• Ubiquitous computing

What is a computer?

Who invented the computer, what can computers do, are computers conscious, what is the impact of computer artificial intelligence (ai) on society.

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• University of Rhode Island - College of Arts and Sciences - Department of Computer Science and Statistics - History of Computers
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• Table Of Contents

A computer is a machine that can store and process information . Most computers rely on a binary system , which uses two variables, 0 and 1, to complete tasks such as storing data, calculating algorithms, and displaying information. Computers come in many different shapes and sizes, from handheld smartphones to supercomputers weighing more than 300 tons.

Many people throughout history are credited with developing early prototypes that led to the modern computer. During World War II, physicist John Mauchly , engineer J. Presper Eckert, Jr. , and their colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania designed the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).

What is the most powerful computer in the world?

As of November 2021 the most powerful computer in the world is the Japanese supercomputer Fugaku, developed by RIKEN and Fujitsu . It has been used to model COVID-19 simulations.

How do programming languages work?

Popular modern programming languages , such as JavaScript and Python, work through multiple forms of programming paradigms. Functional programming, which uses mathematical functions to give outputs based on data input, is one of the more common ways code is used to provide instructions for a computer.

The most powerful computers can perform extremely complex tasks, such as simulating nuclear weapon experiments and predicting the development of climate change . The development of quantum computers , machines that can handle a large number of calculations through quantum parallelism (derived from superposition ), would be able to do even more-complex tasks.

A computer’s ability to gain consciousness is a widely debated topic. Some argue that consciousness depends on self-awareness and the ability to think , which means that computers are conscious because they recognize their environment and can process data. Others believe that human consciousness can never be replicated by physical processes. Read one researcher’s perspective.

Computer artificial intelligence's impact on society is widely debated. Many argue that AI improves the quality of everyday life by doing routine and even complicated tasks better than humans can, making life simpler, safer, and more efficient. Others argue AI poses dangerous privacy risks, exacerbates racism by standardizing people, and costs workers their jobs leading to greater unemployment. For more on the debate over artificial intelligence, visit ProCon.org .

computer , device for processing, storing, and displaying information.

Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery . The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design, constituent parts, and applications. The second section covers the history of computing. For details on computer architecture , software , and theory, see computer science .

Computing basics

The first computers were used primarily for numerical calculations. However, as any information can be numerically encoded, people soon realized that computers are capable of general-purpose information processing . Their capacity to handle large amounts of data has extended the range and accuracy of weather forecasting . Their speed has allowed them to make decisions about routing telephone connections through a network and to control mechanical systems such as automobiles, nuclear reactors, and robotic surgical tools. They are also cheap enough to be embedded in everyday appliances and to make clothes dryers and rice cookers “smart.” Computers have allowed us to pose and answer questions that were difficult to pursue in the past. These questions might be about DNA sequences in genes, patterns of activity in a consumer market, or all the uses of a word in texts that have been stored in a database . Increasingly, computers can also learn and adapt as they operate by using processes such as machine learning .

Computers also have limitations, some of which are theoretical. For example, there are undecidable propositions whose truth cannot be determined within a given set of rules, such as the logical structure of a computer. Because no universal algorithmic method can exist to identify such propositions, a computer asked to obtain the truth of such a proposition will (unless forcibly interrupted) continue indefinitely—a condition known as the “ halting problem .” ( See Turing machine .) Other limitations reflect current technology . For example, although computers have progressed greatly in terms of processing data and using artificial intelligence algorithms , they are limited by their incapacity to think in a more holistic fashion. Computers may imitate humans—quite effectively, even—but imitation may not replace the human element in social interaction. Ethical concerns also limit computers, because computers rely on data, rather than a moral compass or human conscience , to make decisions.

Analog computers use continuous physical magnitudes to represent quantitative information. At first they represented quantities with mechanical components ( see differential analyzer and integrator ), but after World War II voltages were used; by the 1960s digital computers had largely replaced them. Nonetheless, analog computers, and some hybrid digital-analog systems, continued in use through the 1960s in tasks such as aircraft and spaceflight simulation.

One advantage of analog computation is that it may be relatively simple to design and build an analog computer to solve a single problem. Another advantage is that analog computers can frequently represent and solve a problem in “real time”; that is, the computation proceeds at the same rate as the system being modeled by it. Their main disadvantages are that analog representations are limited in precision—typically a few decimal places but fewer in complex mechanisms—and general-purpose devices are expensive and not easily programmed.

Digital computers

In contrast to analog computers, digital computers represent information in discrete form, generally as sequences of 0s and 1s ( binary digits, or bits). The modern era of digital computers began in the late 1930s and early 1940s in the United States , Britain, and Germany . The first devices used switches operated by electromagnets (relays). Their programs were stored on punched paper tape or cards, and they had limited internal data storage. For historical developments, see the section Invention of the modern computer .

During the 1950s and ’60s, Unisys (maker of the UNIVAC computer), International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and other companies made large, expensive computers of increasing power . They were used by major corporations and government research laboratories, typically as the sole computer in the organization. In 1959 the IBM 1401 computer rented for $8,000 per month (early IBM machines were almost always leased rather than sold), and in 1964 the largest IBM S/360 computer cost several million dollars.

These computers came to be called mainframes, though the term did not become common until smaller computers were built. Mainframe computers were characterized by having (for their time) large storage capabilities, fast components, and powerful computational abilities. They were highly reliable, and, because they frequently served vital needs in an organization, they were sometimes designed with redundant components that let them survive partial failures. Because they were complex systems, they were operated by a staff of systems programmers, who alone had access to the computer. Other users submitted “batch jobs” to be run one at a time on the mainframe.

Such systems remain important today, though they are no longer the sole, or even primary, central computing resource of an organization, which will typically have hundreds or thousands of personal computers (PCs). Mainframes now provide high-capacity data storage for Internet servers, or, through time-sharing techniques, they allow hundreds or thousands of users to run programs simultaneously. Because of their current roles, these computers are now called servers rather than mainframes.

Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on computer.

In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government. Mankind is using computers for over many decades now. Also, they are used in many fields like agriculture, designing, machinery making, defense and many more. Above all, they have revolutionized the whole world.

History of Computers

It is very difficult to find the exact origin of computers. But according to some experts computer exists at the time of world war-II. Also, at that time they were used for keeping data. But, it was for only government use and not for public use. Above all, in the beginning, the computer was a very large and heavy machine.

Working of a Computer 

The computer runs on a three-step cycle namely input, process, and output. Also, the computer follows this cycle in every process it was asked to do. In simple words, the process can be explained in this way. The data which we feed into the computer is input, the work CPU do is process and the result which the computer give is output.

Components and Types of Computer

The simple computer basically consists of CPU, monitor, mouse, and keyboard . Also, there are hundreds of other computer parts that can be attached to it. These other parts include a printer, laser pen, scanner , etc.

The computer is categorized into many different types like supercomputers, mainframes, personal computers (desktop), PDAs, laptop, etc. The mobile phone is also a type of computer because it fulfills all the criteria of being a computer.

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Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As the usage of computer increased it became a necessity for almost every field to use computers for their operations. Also, they have made working and sorting things easier. Below we are mentioning some of the important fields that use a computer in their daily operation.

Medical Field

They use computers to diagnose diseases, run tests and for finding the cure for deadly diseases . Also, they are able to find a cure for many diseases because of computers.

Whether it’s scientific research, space research or any social research computers help in all of them. Also, due to them, we are able to keep a check on the environment , space, and society. Space research helped us to explore the galaxies. While scientific research has helped us to locate resources and various other useful resources from the earth.

For any country, his defence is most important for the safety and security of its people. Also, computer in this field helps the country’s security agencies to detect a threat which can be harmful in the future. Above all the defense industry use them to keep surveillance on our enemy.

Threats from a Computer

Computers have become a necessity also, they have become a threat too. This is due to hackers who steal your private data and leak them on internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from that, there are other threats like viruses, spams, bug and many other problems.

The computer is a very important machine that has become a useful part of our life. Also, the computers have twin-faces on one side it’s a boon and on the other side, it’s a bane. Its uses completely depend upon you. Apart from that, a day in the future will come when human civilization won’t be able to survive without computers as we depend on them too much. Till now it is a great discovery of mankind that has helped in saving thousands and millions of lives.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Q.1  What is a computer?

A.1 A computer is an electronic device or machine that makes our work easier. Also, they help us in many ways.

Q.2 Mention various fields where computers are used?

A.2  Computers are majorly used in defense, medicine, and for research purposes.

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How AI could change computing, culture and the course of history

Expect changes in the way people access knowledge, relate to knowledge and think about themselves.

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A mong the more sombre gifts brought by the Enlightenment was the realisation that humans might one day become extinct. The astronomical revolution of the 17th century had shown that the solar system both operated according to the highest principles of reason and contained comets which might conceivably hit the Earth. The geological record, as interpreted by the Comte de Buffon, showed massive extinctions in which species vanished for ever. That set the scene for Charles Darwin to recognise such extinctions as the motor of evolution, and thus as both the force which had fashioned humans and, by implication, their possible destiny. The nascent science of thermodynamics added a cosmic dimension to the certainty of an ending; Sun, Earth and the whole shebang would eventually run down into a lifeless “heat death”.

The 20th century added the idea that extinction might not come about naturally, but through artifice. The spur for this was the discovery, and later exploitation, of the power locked up in atomic nuclei. Celebrated by some of its discoverers as a way of indefinitely deferring heat death, nuclear energy was soon developed into a far more proximate danger. And the tangible threat of imminent catastrophe which it posed rubbed off on other technologies.

None was more tainted than the computer. It may have been guilt by association: the computer played a vital role in the development of the nuclear arsenal. It may have been foreordained. The Enlightenment belief in rationality as humankind’s highest achievement and Darwin’s theory of evolution made the promise of superhuman rationality the possibility of evolutionary progress at humankind’s expense.

Artificial intelligence has come to loom large in the thought of the small but fascinating, and much written about, coterie of academics which has devoted itself to the consideration of existential risk over the past couple of decades. Indeed, it often appeared to be at the core of their concerns. A world which contained entities which think better and act quicker than humans and their institutions, and which had interests that were not aligned with those of humankind, would be a dangerous place.

It became common for people within and around the field to say that there was a “non-zero” chance of the development of superhuman AI s leading to human extinction. The remarkable boom in the capabilities of large language models ( LLM s), “foundational” models and related forms of “generative” AI has propelled these discussions of existential risk into the public imagination and the inboxes of ministers.

As the special Science section in this issue makes clear, the field’s progress is precipitate and its promise immense. That brings clear and present dangers which need addressing. But in the specific context of GPT-4 , the LLM du jour , and its generative ilk, talk of existential risks seems rather absurd. They produce prose, poetry and code; they generate images, sound and video; they make predictions based on patterns. It is easy to see that those capabilities bring with them a huge capacity for mischief. It is hard to imagine them underpinning “the power to control civilisation”, or to “replace us”, as hyperbolic critics warn.

But the lack of any “Minds that are to our minds as ours are to those of the beasts that perish, intellects vast and cool and unsympathetic [drawing] their plans against us”, to quote H.G. Wells, does not mean that the scale of the changes that AI may bring with it can be ignored or should be minimised. There is much more to life than the avoidance of extinction. A technology need not be world-ending to be world-changing.

The transition into a world filled with computer programs capable of human levels of conversation and language comprehension and superhuman powers of data assimilation and pattern recognition has just begun. The coming of ubiquitous pseudocognition along these lines could be a turning point in history even if the current pace of AI progress slackens (which it might) or fundamental developments have been tapped out (which feels unlikely). It can be expected to have implications not just for how people earn their livings and organise their lives, but also for how they think about their humanity.

For a sense of what may be on the way, consider three possible analogues, or precursors: the browser, the printing press and practice of psychoanalysis. One changed computers and the economy, one changed how people gained access and related to knowledge, and one changed how people understood themselves.

The humble web browser, introduced in the early 1990s as a way to share files across networks, changed the ways in which computers are used, the way in which the computer industry works and the way information is organised. Combined with the ability to link computers into networks, the browser became a window through which first files and then applications could be accessed wherever they might be located. The interface through which a user interacted with an application was separated from the application itself.

The power of the browser was immediately obvious. Fights over how hard users could be pushed towards a particular browser became a matter of high commercial drama. Almost any business with a web address could get funding, no matter what absurdity it promised. When boom turned to bust at the turn of the century there was a predictable backlash. But the fundamental separation of interface and application continued. Amazon, Meta ( née Facebook) and Alphabet ( née Google) rose to giddy heights by making the browser a conduit for goods, information and human connections. Who made the browsers became incidental; their role as a platform became fundamental.

The months since the release of Open AI ’s Chat GPT , a conversational interface now powered by GPT-4 , have seen an entrepreneurial explosion that makes the dotcom boom look sedate. For users, apps based on LLM s and similar software can be ludicrously easy to use; type a prompt and see a result. For developers it is not that much harder. “You can just open your laptop and write a few lines of code that interact with the model,” explains Ben Tossell, a British entrepreneur who publishes a newsletter about AI services.

And the LLM s are increasingly capable of helping with that coding, too. Having been “trained” not just on reams of text, but lots of code, they contain the building blocks of many possible programs; that lets them act as “co-pilots” for coders. Programmers on GitHub, an open-source coding site, are now using a GPT-4 -based co-pilot to produce nearly half their code.

There is no reason why this ability should not eventually allow LLM s to put code together on the fly, explains Kevin Scott, Microsoft’s chief technology officer. The capacity to translate from one language to another includes, in principle and increasingly in practice, the ability to translate from language to code. A prompt written in English can in principle spur the production of a program that fulfils its requirements. Where browsers detached the user interface from the software application, LLM s are likely to dissolve both categories. This could mark a fundamental shift in both the way people use computers and the business models within which they do so.

Every day I write the book

Code-as-a-service sounds like a game-changing plus. A similarly creative approach to accounts of the world is a minus. While browsers mainly provided a window on content and code produced by humans, LLM s generate their content themselves. When doing so they “hallucinate” (or as some prefer “confabulate”) in various ways. Some hallucinations are simply nonsense. Some, such as the incorporation of fictitious misdeeds to biographical sketches of living people, are both plausible and harmful. The hallucinations can be generated by contradictions in training sets and by LLM s being designed to produce coherence rather than truth. They create things which look like things in their training sets; they have no sense of a world beyond the texts and images on which they are trained.

In many applications a tendency to spout plausible lies is a bug. For some it may prove a feature. Deep fakes and fabricated videos which traduce politicians are only the beginning. Expect the models to be used to set up malicious influence networks on demand, complete with fake websites, Twitter bots, Facebook pages, TikTok feeds and much more. The supply of disinformation, Renée DiResta of the Stanford Internet Observatory has warned, “will soon be infinite”.

This threat to the very possibility of public debate may not be an existential one; but it is deeply troubling. It brings to mind the “Library of Babel”, a short story by Jorge Luis Borges. The library contains all the books that have ever been written, but also all the books which were never written, books that are wrong, books that are nonsense. Everything that matters is there, but it cannot be found because of everything else; the librarians are driven to madness and despair.

This fantasy has an obvious technological substrate. It takes the printing press’s ability to recombine a fixed set of symbols in an unlimited number of ways to its ultimate limit. And that provides another way of thinking about LLM s.

Dreams never end

The degree to which the modern world is unimaginable without printing makes any guidance its history might provide for speculation about LLM s at best partial, at worst misleading. Johannes Gutenberg’s development of movable type has been awarded responsibility, at some time or other, for almost every facet of life that grew up in the centuries which followed. It changed relations between God and man, man and woman, past and present. It allowed the mass distribution of opinions, the systematisation of bureaucracy, the accumulation of knowledge. It brought into being the notion of intellectual property and the possibility of its piracy. But that very breadth makes comparison almost unavoidable. As Bradford DeLong, an economic historian at the University of California, Berkeley puts it, “It’s the one real thing we have in which the price of creating information falls by an order of magnitude.”

Printed books made it possible for scholars to roam larger fields of knowledge than had ever before been possible. In that there is an obvious analogy for LLM s, which trained on a given corpus of knowledge can derive all manner of things from it. But there was more to the acquisition of books than mere knowledge.

Just over a century after Gutenberg’s press began its clattering Michel de Montaigne, a French aristocrat, had been able to amass a personal library of some 1,500 books—something unimaginable for an individual of any earlier European generation. The library gave him more than knowledge. It gave him friends. “When I am attacked by gloomy thoughts,” he wrote, “nothing helps me so much as running to my books. They quickly absorb me and banish the clouds from my mind.”

And the idea of the book gave him a way of being himself no one had previously explored: to put himself between covers. “Reader,” he warned in the preface to his Essays , “I myself am the matter of my book.” The mass production of books allowed them to become peculiarly personal; it was possible to write a book about nothing more, or less, than yourself, and the person that your reading of other books had made you. Books produced authors.

As a way of presenting knowledge, LLM s promise to take both the practical and personal side of books further, in some cases abolishing them altogether. An obvious application of the technology is to turn bodies of knowledge into subject matter for chatbots. Rather than reading a corpus of text, you will question an entity trained on it and get responses based on what the text says. Why turn pages when you can interrogate a work as a whole?

Everyone and everything now seems to be pursuing such fine-tuned models as ways of providing access to knowledge. Bloomberg, a media company, is working on Bloomberg GPT , a model for financial information. There are early versions of a Quran GPT and a Bible GPT ; can a puffer-jacketed Pontiff GPT be far behind? Meanwhile several startups are offering services that turn all the documents on a user’s hard disk, or in their bit of the cloud, into a resource for conversational consultation. Many early adopters are already using chatbots as sounding boards. “It’s like a knowledgeable colleague you can always talk to,” explains Jack Clark of Anthropic, an LLM- making startup.

It is easy to imagine such intermediaries having what would seem like personalities—not just generic ones, such as “avuncular tutor”, but specific ones which grow with time. They might come to be like their users: an externalised version of their inner voice. Or they might be like any other person whose online output is sufficient for a model to train on (intellectual-property concerns permitting). Researchers at the Australian Institute for Machine Learning have built an early version of such an assistant for Laurie Anderson, a composer and musician. It is trained in part on her work, and in part on that of her late husband Lou Reed.

Without you

Ms Anderson says she does not consider using the system as a way of collaborating with her dead partner. Others might succumb more readily to such an illusion. If some chatbots do become, to some extent, their user’s inner voice, then that voice will persist after death, should others wish to converse with it. That some people will leave chatbots of themselves behind when they die seems all but certain.

Such applications and implications call to mind Sigmund Freud’s classic essay on the Unheimliche , or uncanny. Freud takes as his starting point the idea that uncanniness stems from “doubts [as to] whether an apparently animate being is really alive; or conversely, whether a lifeless object might not be in fact animate”. They are the sort of doubts that those thinking about LLM s are hard put to avoid.

Though AI researchers can explain the mechanics of their creations, they are persistently unable to say what actually happens within them. “There’s no ‘ultimate theoretical reason’ why anything like this should work,” Stephen Wolfram, a computer scientist and the creator of Wolfram Alpha, a mathematical search engine, recently concluded in a remarkable (and lengthy) blog post trying to explain the models’ inner workings.

This raises two linked but mutually exclusive concerns: that AI ’s have some sort of internal working which scientists cannot yet perceive; or that it is possible to pass as human in the social world without any sort of inner understanding.

“These models are just representations of the distributions of words in texts that can be used to produce more words,” says Emily Bender, a professor at the University of Washington in Seattle. She is one of the authors of “On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?” a critique of LLM triumphalism. The models, she argues, have no real understanding. With no experience of real life or human communication they offer nothing more than the ability to parrot things they have heard in training, an ability which huge amounts of number crunching makes frequently appropriate and sometimes surprising, but which is nothing like thought. It is a view which is often pronounced in those who have come into the field through linguistics, as Dr Bender has.

For some in the LLM -building trade things are not that simple. Their models are hard to dismiss as “mere babblers”, in the words of Blaise Agüera y Arcas, the leader of a group at Alphabet which works on AI -powered products. He thinks the models have attributes which cannot really be distinguished from an ability to know what things actually mean. It can be seen, he suggests, in their ability reliably to choose the right meaning when translating phrases which are grammatically ambiguous, or to explain jokes.

If Dr Bender is right, then it can be argued that a broad range of behaviour that humans have come to think of as essentially human is not necessarily so. Uncanny “doubts [as to] whether an apparently animate being is really alive” are fully justified.

To accept that human-seeming LLM s are calculation, statistics and nothing more could influence how people think about themselves. Freud portrayed himself as continuing the trend begun by Copernicus—who removed humans from the centre of the universe—and Darwin—who removed them from a special and God-given status among the animals. Psychology’s contribution, as Freud saw it, lay in “endeavouring to prove to the ‘ego’ of each one of us that he is not even master in his own house”. LLM s could be argued to take the idea further still. At least one wing of Freud’s house becomes an unoccupied “smart home”; the lights go on and off automatically, the smart thermostat opens windows and lowers blinds, the roomba roombas around. No master needed at all.

Uncanny as that may all be, though, it would be wrong to think that many people will take this latest decentring to heart. As far as everyday life is concerned, humankind has proved pretty resilient to Copernicus, Darwin and Freud. People still believe in gods and souls and specialness with little obvious concern for countervailing science. They could well adapt quite easily to the pseudocognitive world, at least as far as philosophical qualms are concerned.

You do not have to buy Freud’s explanation of the unsettling effect of the uncanny in terms of the effort the mind expends on repressing childish animism to think that not worrying and going with the animistic flow will make a world populated with communicative pseudo-people a surprisingly comfortable one. People may simultaneously recognise that something is not alive and treat it as if it were. Some will take this too far, forming problematic attachments that Freud would have dubbed fetishistic. But only a few sensitive souls will find themselves left behind staring into an existential—but personal—abyss opened up by the possibility that their seeming thought is all for naught.

New gold dream

What if Mr Agüera y Arcas is right, though, and that which science deems lifeless is, in some cryptic, partial and emergent way, effectively animate? Then it will be time to do for AI some of what Freud thought he was doing for humans. Having realised that the conscious mind was not the whole show, Freud looked elsewhere for sources of desire that for good or ill drove behaviour. Very few people now subscribe to the specific Freudian explanations of human behaviour which followed. But the idea that there are reasons why people do things of which they are not conscious is part of the world’s mental furniture. The unconscious is probably not a great model for whatever it is that provides LLM s with an apparent sense of meaning or an approximation of agency. But the sense that there might be something below the AI surface which needs understanding may prove powerful.

Dr Bender and those who agree with her may take issue with such notions. But they might find that they lead to useful actions in the field of “ AI ethics”. Winkling out non-conscious biases acquired in the pre-verbal infancy of training; dealing with the contradictions behind hallucinations; regularising rogue desires: ideas from psychotherapy might be seen as helpful analogies for dealing with the pseudocognitive AI transition even by those who reject all notion of an AI mind. A concentration on the relationship between parents, or programmers, and their children could be welcome, too. What is it to bring up an AI well? What sort of upbringing should be forbidden? To what extent should the creators of AI s be held responsible for the harms done by their creation?

And human desires may need some inspection, too. Why are so many people eager for the sort of intimacy an LLM might provide? Why do many influential humans seem to think that, because evolution shows species can go extinct, theirs is quite likely to do so at its own hand, or that of its successor? And where is the determination to turn a superhuman rationality into something which does not merely stir up the economy, but changes history for the better? ■

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This article appeared in the Essay section of the print edition under the headline “THE AGE OF PSEUDOCOGNITION”

From the April 22nd 2023 edition

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Personal Computer Replacement Consultant

🔍 washington dc, united states - headquarters.

Post of duty: HQ – Washington/DC

The IDB Group is a community of diverse, versatile, and passionate people who come together on a journey to improve lives in Latin America and the Caribbean. Our people find purpose and do what they love in an inclusive, collaborative, agile, and rewarding environment.

About this position

We are looking for a consultant with a background in IT support to join the Personal Computer Renovation Team.

We are looking for a dedicated, proactive, and user-centered IT support. As IT support, you will be responsible for the bulk replacement’s implementation of new computers with a reliable factory-integrated image and autopilot.

You will work in Service Manager, part of Information Technology Department (ITE). This team is the focal point for delivery of Information Technology, Information Management, and Telecommunications solutions and services at Headquarters and Country Offices to facilitate the Bank´s mission.

What you’ll do

The objective of the consultancy is to participate in the hardware installation team for the Personal Computer Renovation Project. The contractual will install computers and provide reliable and responsive support for the new IT environment. Such IT environment include Hardware replacement, infrastructure administration, and information and training assistance. The regular services to be provided by the consultant are the following:

User Support 

• The services relate to the provision of new PC’s to local and international IDB staff, as well as the provision of specialized hardware support during the process.

User Technical Assistance 

• Assist users in the exchange and use of computers and other IT devices (desktop, laptop, monitor, etc.), including installation, configuration, advice, and troubleshooting.
• Ensure that the information and software licenses are transferred with integrity during the exchange.
• Ensure that all user requests and incidents are properly entered, attended to, and documented in the ITE Service Now system.
• Ensure that all devices are delivered in compliance with bank systems, including Intune and Asset Management.
• Prepare retrieved assets for donation by wiping and installing blank images on them. (duplicated with the point above).
• Monitor all incidents and work orders through the ITE Service Management system, Service Now and follow up with the appropriate ITE teams and users on any submitted tickets.
• Assist in troubleshooting and maintaining the hardware inventory.

Technical Support

• Service computer replacement requests and incidents.
• Investigate and resolve hardware and infrastructure problems within control
• Assist in obtaining vendor support to resolve problems beyond control.

What you'll need  

• Education: Bachelor’s degree in TI and/or equivalent.
• Experience: At least two years of progressive experience in IT support activities. Working knowledge of ITIL processes for incident, service request and knowledge management. Bachelor’s degree in computer science or related field relevant to the responsibilities of the role may be a substitute for the period of professional experience.
• Languages:  Proficiency in English and one of the other Bank official languages (Spanish, French or Portuguese) is required.
• Learn continuously.
• Collaborate and share knowledge.
• Focus on clients.
• Communicate and influence.
• Willing to learn and keep doing it continuously.
• Innovate and try new things.
• Empathy and Active listening                            

Technical Competencies and Skills

• Windows Active Directory, MS Windows 11 clients, MS Office 365.
• PC maintenance and network troubleshooting.
• Strong customer service skills.
• ITIL certification is a plus.

Requirements

• Citizenship:  You are a citizen of one of our 48-member countries.  
• Consanguinity : You have no family members (up to the fourth degree of consanguinity and second degree of affinity, including spouse) working at the IDB, IDB Invest, or IDB Lab.

Type of contract and duration

• Type of contract:  International Consultant Full-Time.
• Length of contract: 12 months. Contract may be extended up to 36 months based on business requirements and consultant's performance.
• Work Location: On site.

  What we offer

The IDB Group provides benefits that respond to the different needs and moments of an employee’s life. These benefits include:

• A  competitive compensation packages.
• Leaves and vacations : 2 days per month of contract + gender- neutral parental leave.
• Health Insurance : the IDB Group provides a monthly allowance for the purchase of health insurance.
• Savings plan : The IDB Group cares about your future, depending on the length of the contract, you will receive a monthly savings plan allowance.
• We offer assistance with relocation and visa applications for you and your family when it applies.
• Hybrid and flexible work schedules.
• Development support: We offer learning opportunities to boost your professional profile such as seminars, 1:1 professional counseling, and much more.
• Health and wellbeing:   Access to our Health Services Center which provides preventive care and health education for all employees.
• Other perks:  Lactation Room, Daycare Center, Gym, Bike Racks, Parking, and others  

Our culture

At the IDB Group we work so everyone brings their best and authentic selves to work, willing to try new approaches without fear, and where they are accountable and rewarded for their actions.

Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Belonging (DEIB) are at the center of our organization. We celebrate all dimensions of diversity and encourage women, LGBTQ+ people, persons with disabilities, Afro-descendants, and Indigenous people to apply.

We will ensure that individuals with disabilities are provided reasonable accommodation to participate in the job interview process. If you are a qualified candidate with a disability, please e-mail us at [email protected]   to request reasonable accommodation to complete this application.

Our Human Resources Team reviews carefully every application. 

About the IDB Group

The IDB Group, composed of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), IDB Invest, and the IDB Lab offers flexible financing solutions to its member countries to finance economic and social development through lending and grants to public and private entities in Latin America and the Caribbean.

We work to improve lives in Latin America and the Caribbean. Through financial and technical support for countries working to reduce poverty and inequality, we help improve health and education and advance infrastructure. Our aim is to achieve development in a sustainable, climate-friendly way. With a history dating back to 1959, today we are the leading source of development financing for Latin America and the Caribbean. We provide loans, grants, and technical assistance; and we conduct extensive research. We maintain a strong commitment to achieving measurable results and the highest standards of integrity, transparency, and accountability.

Follow us :

https://www.linkedin.com/company/inter-american-development-bank/

https://www.facebook.com/IADB.org

https://twitter.com/the_IDB

• External Opening Date: Aug 27, 2024
• External Closing Date: Sep 10, 2024
• External Contact Email: [email protected]
• External Contact Name: HR Service Center
• Job Field: Technical Support

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Computers and Federal Regulation

34 Pages Posted: 27 Aug 2024

John D. Leshy

UC Law, San Francisco

Date Written: March 01, 1969

This is a survey of the development to date of the federal government's concern with computers, a very fledgling field in 1969.

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

John D. Leshy (Contact Author)

Uc law, san francisco ( email ).

200 McAllister Street San Francisco, CA 94102 United States 202-744-5809 (Phone)

HOME PAGE: http://www.uclawsf.edu/?pid=1518

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